A Comprehensive Review of Ipomoea carnea: Botanical, Ecological and Medicinal Perspective

Soni Rishita¹*, Salunke Khushi¹, Patel Harsh¹, Patel Aastha¹, Taufik Mulla², Ambika Nand Jha³

1. Krishna School of Pharmacy & Research, A Constituent School of Drs. Kiran & Pallavi Patel Global

    University, Vadodara, Gujarat, India.

2. Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, Parul University, P.O. Limda, Tal.

     Waghodia - 391760, Dist. Vadodara, Gujarat (India).

3. School of Pharmacy, Sharda University, Greater Noida, 32,  Greater Noida - 201310 (UP)

 

Correspondence: sonirishita0505@gmail.com

Article Information		Abstract
Review Article Received: 22/11/2024 Accepted: 30/11/2024 Published: 01/01/2025     Keywords Biocomposites, invasive species, Ipomoea carnea, morphological characteristics, polymer matrices, reproductive strategies, toxicity..		Ipomoea carnea (Convolvulaceae), commonly known as Bush Morning Glory, is a versatile and widely distributed plant species with significant ecological, economic, and medicinal potential. This review explores the botanical, ecological, and medicinal characteristics of I. carnea, providing a comprehensive analysis of its morphology, taxonomy, distribution, and reproductive strategies. The plant's adaptability to diverse habitats, ranging from tropical to subtropical regions, highlights its invasive potential and the need for ecological management in non-native environments. In terms of morphology, I. carnea is a perennial shrub or small tree with heart-shaped leaves and large, trumpet-shaped flowers, typically pink in color. Its anatomical structure, including its vascular tissue and seed morphology, reflects typical characteristics of dicotyledonous plants. Beyond its botanical significance, I. carnea holds substantial economic value. It serves as a sustainable alternative to wood in paper production due to its high lignin content, while also demonstrating efficacy in activated carbon production for metal adsorption and biogas generation. Additionally, I. carnea has shown promise in biocomposites fabrication, demonstrating enhanced mechanical properties when incorporated into polymer matrices. Medicinally, the plant has demonstrated antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties, along with traditional uses in various cultures. However, its toxicity, particularly in seeds, necessitates caution in its utilization. Furthermore, the plant's potential as a bio-pesticide and its role in improving compost microbial activity are notable for their agricultural applications.

 

INTRODUCTION

Ipomoea carnea (Family: Convolvulaceae), commonly referred to as Bush Morning Glory in English and Besharam in India, is a plant species. Besharam/behaya, which means shameless in Hindi and Marathi, alludes to its widespread distribution. Ipomoea carnea plant can be found all over the world, including Asia, Africa, and North America. Morning Glory is a sparkling flower that blooms in the sunlight, dries up in the afternoon, and fades into the night, giving rise to new flowers every day [2]. The name itself describes this flower. This flowering, evergreen shrub reaches a height of 5–6 meters. With several branches growing from the base, the thick stem takes years to solidify into a trunk [1]. The stem has an erect, somewhat cylindrical shape, is greenish in color, and is hairy and woody. Its leaves are arranged in pairs. Its normal length and diameter are 1.25 - 2.75 m and 0.5 - 0.8 cm, respectively. The light green leaves are 10–25 centimetres long, heart-shaped, or somewhat lanceolate. The leaf has a dull green upper surface and a lighter lower surface. The leaves that receive less sunlight may develop larger than those that receive full sunshine. The bushes produce 4-inch pink flowers in bunches throughout the spring and summer. Ipomoea carnea has axial flowers [3]. The cylindrical, green pedicel is upright. Its diameter ranges from 0.15 to 0.20 cm, while its length spans 1.5 to 2.2 cm. The corolla mouth measures 5.2–6.0 cm long and 1.6–1.8 cm wide at the mouth, with a complete edge and a few noticeable depressions at the locations where the petals are cohesive [4]. The fruit has a glabrous capsule, and the seed is silky. The flowers are in lax, terminal, pedunculate cymes and are pale rose, pink, or light violet.

Figure.1 Ipomoea carnea plant

Significance of Ipomoea carnea

As a raw material in paper manufacturing, this plant is a very good substitute for wood as a raw material. Ipomoea carnea and wood are the sources of soda lignin and soda anthraquinone, which are almost identical lignin components. The components' functional groups bear a great deal of similarity. Both of the lignin samples included vanillin and syringaldehyde. The amount of lignin precipitated from black liquor is almost doubled when anthraquinone is added to the pulping process, but it has no effect on the quality of lignin precipitated from soda black liquor. The addition of 0.1% anthraquinone resulted in a significantly higher rate of delignification [5]. It has been discovered that Ipomoea carnea is quite beneficial for producing paper [5,6]. Source of Activated Carbon Raw Material It has been demonstrated that Ipomoea carnea is an effective raw material for extracting copper from aqueous solutions. It has been demonstrated that activated carbon made from morning glory through the activation of zinc chloride exhibits a higher capacity for adsorbing copper than the raw adsorbent. There was an increase in the quantity of micropores following zinc chloride activation. Therefore, as the number of micropores increased, so did the percentage of copper adsorbed. Copper was shown to adsorb more when the pH was at its natural level. Both activated carbon and raw adsorbent absorb copper according to pseudo-second order rate kinetics [6,7]. In the ability to function as an energy source a prominent source of biogas for energy is Ipomoea carnea. A huge amount of this diffuse shrub can be effectively utilized by using its cellulose content, which was found to be over 55%, and its lignin content, which was found to be about 17%, to make a lightweight polymer composite. This indicates that Ipomoea carnea is a fibrous material. The 25L, 50L, and 100L scale-up digesters were fitted with the bio methanation parameters optimized at the 4L digester level. The good daily volumes of biogas produced and the percentage of methane contents indicated that these parameters were successfully scaled up to those levels. A blend of distillery waste and biomass from Ipomoea carnea turned out to be the most effective substrate. Ipomoea carnea is a promising plant for energy generation because of its adequate methane concentration [6,8]. In the role of a bio compost Ipomoea carnea has scientifically proven to be beneficial in raising the microbiological activity of bio compost. Following Ipomoea carnea treatment, bio compost's organic content increases as well. In Ipomoea carnea compost, the thermophilic bacteria are most prevalent; at 50OC bio compost on day 30, their number is (43x106). Ipomoea carnea aids in the germination of several seeds as well. For example, on the fifth day, the peanut Ipomoea carnea compost mixture showed the highest percentage of germination (83%) in contrast to OS (49%) [4,9].

Ipomoea carnea extracts were investigated as a pesticide for their antifeedant activity against the Leaf Folder, a rice pest (Cnaphalocrosis medinalis). The mortality percentage on exposure (hour) in 100% EtOH extract of I. carnea was found to be 100% in 12 hours for each of the three test concentrations. I. carnea extract in 50% EtOH was 100% (1000 ppm), 5% (500 ppm), and 18% (100 ppm) after 12 hours. Within 24 hours, 95% (500 ppm) of the mortality rate in I. carnea water extract was 24. In the control group, mortality was noted 48 hours following pupa formation [10,12]. Ipomoea carnea extracts containing benzene and chloroform produced chemicals such as cholestan-3-one, 1-decanol, tetra decanoic acid, pentadecane, 1-iodo-2-methylundecane, trans caryophyllene, eicosane, and 1-iodo-2-methylundecane. One steroidal molecule with strong pesticidal properties is cholestan-3-one [10].

As a possible source of textiles, this shrub's cellulose content is more than 55%, and its lignin content is roughly 17%. This indicates that it is a fibrous material that can be used as a filler to create lightweight polymer composites, which offers an efficient way to use a lot of this diffuse shrub [11].  Beyond its conventional usage, the research conducted, it can be employed as an efficient reinforcement in polymeric composites to create a wide range of technological applications. It can also be used in place of composites made of wood. In comparison to some natural and synthetic fibres, the created composite is less dense. As such, it can be wisely applied to the production of lightweight composite materials. When compared to pure epoxy, the tensile and flexural properties of the epoxy matrix that contains Ipomoea carnea particle reinforcement exhibit improved performance [11].

Purpose and Scope of Review

A thorough analysis of Ipomoea carnea would probably have a variety of goals, including ecological, medicinal, and botanical viewpoints. The possible goals and parameters of this kind of review are broken down as follows:

Botanical Perspective:

Taxonomy: Outlining Ipomoea carnea's genus, family, and any applicable sub-species or variations, as well as its botanical classification.

Morphology: Describing a plant's outward features, such as its leaves, flowers, roots, and seeds.

Distribution: Describes the geographic distribution of Ipomoea carnea, taking into account both its natural habitat and any areas into which it has been introduced.

Reproduction: describing the plant's systems for flowering and seed production as well as its reproductive biology. [13]

Ecological Perspective:

Habitat: Analyzing Ipomoea carnea's ecological niche, taking into account its favored habitat types, soil needs, and interactions with other species.

Invasive Potential: Evaluating the plant's capacity to spread to non-native ecosystems and its effect on biodiversity in native areas.

Ecological Benefits: Investigating any potential beneficial ecological functions of Ipomoea carnea, such as supplying food or habitat to wildlife. [4,14]

Medicinal Perspective:

Traditional Uses: Recording the traditional medical use of Ipomoea carnea across history and culture, including any folklore or indigenous knowledge related to the plant.

Phytochemistry: Examining the active ingredients and possible pharmacological effects of Ipomoea carnea by analyzing its chemical makeup.

Medicinal Properties: Examining the data provided by science to support the plant's potential medical uses, including its antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant qualities.

Safety and Toxicity: Discussing any possible harmful effects or safety issues related to using Ipomoea carnea in herbal medicine. [4]

The review's scope would probably entail compiling data from a range of sources, including pharmaceutical research, ecological studies, ethnobotanical surveys, and botanical literature. Its goal would be to present a thorough analysis of Ipomoea carnea from a variety of angles, illuminating its ecological functions, therapeutic potential, and botanical traits. The evaluation may also point up areas of incomplete knowledge and potential directions for investigation, such as additional studies of the ecological effects or clinical trials to confirm its therapeutic use.

BOTANICAL FEATURES OF IPOMOEA CARNEA

Ipomoea carnea exhibits several distinctive botanical features. Here's an overview of its key botanical characteristics [13].

Growth Habit:

Ø  Ipomoea carnea is a tiny tree or shrub that grows as a perennial herbaceous plant. It usually grows to a height of 1 to 3 meters (3 to 10 feet), yet under the right circumstances, it can occasionally reach greater heights.

Stems and Leaves:

Ø  Stems: Ipomoea carnea stems typically have a thick, succulent base that is woody. Their growth style might be slightly twisted or twining, which enables the plant to spread out over other plants or climb over them.

Ø  Leaves: The leaves have a heart-shaped or roughly oval contour, are simple, and alternating. Usually measuring from 5 to 20 centimetres (2 and 8 inches) in length, they have complete borders and noticeable veins. Usually, the leaf surface is smooth or faintly hairy.

Flowers:

Ø  Inflorescence: The trumpet-shaped, eye-catching blooms of Ipomoea carnea are produced in clusters called cymes. The leaf axils give rise to the inflorescences.

Ø  Flower structure: Each flower has a large, five-lobed corolla that opens from a long, thin tube called the corolla tube. Corolla lobes are typically pink or purplish-pink, but they can also be white or have different colors.

Ø  Reproductive organs: One pistil with a superior ovary and five stamens are found within the flower.

Fruits and Seeds:

Ø  Fruit: Ipomoea carnea yields long, cylindrical fruits called capsules after pollination. There are many small seeds inside these capsules.

Ø  Seeds: When the mature capsules split apart, the seeds which are usually dark brown to black in color are released.

Roots:

Ø  Ipomoea carnea has a thick taproot and several lateral roots that make up its root system. To help with anchoring and water absorption, the roots may go far into the ground.

Phenology:

Ø  In regions that are suited, Ipomoea carnea is well-known for having a long flowering season, with flowers frequently appearing all year round. However, the warmer months are usually when peak flowering happens. In addition, the plant may display fluctuations in its development and flowering schedule in reaction to external factors including temperature, precipitation, and photoperiod.

Toxicity:

Ø  It's crucial to remember that Ipomoea carnea includes harmful substances, especially in its seeds and other plant components. If consumed in high amounts, these toxins can be dangerous to both people and animals.

It is crucial to comprehend these botanical characteristics in order to differentiate Ipomoea carnea from other plant species and to recognize it in its native habitat, particularly in light of the plant's potential for invasion in some areas.

Taxonomy and Classification

The taxonomy and classification of Ipomoea carnea [6]:

1)      Kingdom: Plantae - Multicellular, photosynthetic organisms are included in the kingdom of plants, which includes Ipomoea carnea.

2)      Division: Magnoliophyta (Angiosperms) –Flowering plants that generate seeds encased in fruit are categorized under the division of Ipomoea carnea.

3)      Class: Magnoliopsida (Dicotyledons) - Ipomoea carnea belongs to the dicotyledonous plant class, which is characterized by the germination of two seed leaves, or cotyledons, on a plant.

4)      Order: Solanales - Convolvulaceae, Solanaceae (nightshades), and other families of flowering plants are included in the order Solanales, which Ipomoea carnea belongs to.

5)      Family: Convolvulaceae - Ipomoea carnea is a part of the Convolvulaceae family, also referred to as the morning glory or bindweed family. This family of herbaceous plants, vines, and some trees comprises more than 60 genera and over 1,650 species.

6)      Genus: Ipomoea - With more than 500 species of herbaceous plants, vines, and shrubs, Ipomoea is a sizable genus in the Convolvulaceae family. This genus has many species that are well-known for their lovely flowers and growth patterns, which include climbing and trailing.

7)      Species: Ipomoea carnea - This species is distinguished by its heart-shaped leaves, huge pink or purplish-pink flowers, and shrubby or small tree growth habit. It is well-known for both its aesthetic value and, in some areas, its potential for invasion.

8)      Subspecies and Varieties: Ipomoea carnea is a species that may contain subspecies or varieties with somewhat different growth habits, flower colors, or leaf shapes. Regional variations and taxonomy changes, however, may cause individual subspecies or varieties to diverge.

The taxonomic classification of Ipomoea carnea and allied species within the genus Ipomoea and the family Convolvulaceae may change in the future as new research sheds light on their physical traits and genetic links. The taxonomical classification of the genus Ipomoea is given in Table 1. [6]

 

 

Table 1: Taxonomical classification of genus: Ipomoea [6]

 

Preferred scientific name Ipomoea carnea subsp. Fistulosa

Other scientific names Batatas crassicaulis

Convolvulus batatillia

Ipomoea batatilla

Ipomoea crassicaulis

Ipomoea fistulosa

Table 2: Common names of Ipomoea used in different languages [13]

 

Morphological and Anatomical Characteristics of Ipomoea carnea

Morphological Characteristics

Ipomoea carnea can reach a maximum height of 6 meters, although it can grow shorter in aquatic environments. After a few years of growth, the stem thickens and develops into a large trunk with multiple thick branches sprouting from the base. Simple and petiolate leaves. The cylindrical petiole reaches lengths of 4.0 to 7.5 cm and diameters of 2.5 to 3.0 mm [15]. Ipomoea carnea has an erect, hairy, woody stem that is roughly cylindrical in shape and has a greenish hue. The leaves on the plant alternate as well. Its leaves typically reach lengths of 1.25 to 2.75 m and diameters of 0.5 to 0.8 cm. The leaves are 10–25 cm long, bright green, and have a heart- or somewhat lanceolate form [4]. Throughout the spring and summer, the plants produce clusters of 4-inch pink flowers. Its cylindrical, green pedicel-shaped blooms are axial. Flowers can reach lengths of up to 1.5 to 2.2 cm and diameters of 0.15 to 0.20 cm. The fruits have a glabrous capsule; the seed is silky; the blooms have terminal, pedunculate cymes and are pale rose, pink, or light violet in colour [1]. The mouth of the corolla is 1.6–1.8 cm wide and 5.2–6.0 cm long, with a complete edge and a few noticeable indentations at the locations where the petals are cohesive [17]. It is referred to as Ipomoea fistulosa and Ipomoea crassicaulis in science. [5,13]. This plant's seed has three sides: a convex dorsal surface, and two flat ventral surfaces with a central depression [16].

Anatomical Characteristics

Ipomoea carnea can be categorized according to its internal anatomical traits using an anatomical categorization. General anatomical traits can still be defined, even if Ipomoea carnea may not have as many thorough anatomical studies as other extensively examined species [4]. This is Ipomoea carnea's basic anatomical classification:

a)      Root Anatomy:

§  The roots may display a variety of structural characteristics common to dicotyledonous plants, such as a central vascular cylinder (stele) surrounded by layers of cortex, endodermis, and epidermis.

§  Typically, the root system of Ipomoea carnea consists of a thick taproot with multiple lateral roots.

b)      Stem Anatomy:

·         Ipomoea carnea stems have the potential to establish secondary growth, which can result in the development of woody tissue in older stems.

·         The stem's anatomical characteristics may include unique vascular bundles encircled by ground tissue (parenchyma) and layers of epidermis, either in a ring-like or dispersed arrangement.

c)      Leaf Anatomy:

·         Anatomical features of the leaf blade may include top and lower epidermal layers, mesophyll tissue (palisade and spongy parenchyma), vascular bundles, and stomata for gas exchange.

·         Ipomoea carnea leaves normally have a simple, complete margin and pinnate venation.

d)      Flower Anatomy:

·         The reproductive organs of Ipomoea carnea flowers are encased in floral whorls, conforming to the standard dicotyledonous floral structure.

·         The flower's anatomical features may involve the petals, stamens, carpels, sepals, and the associated tissues used in reproduction, like the ovary's ovules.

e)      Fruit and Seed Anatomy:

·         The capsule-shaped fruits of Ipomoea carnea are filled with compartment-enclosed seeds.

·         Layers of pericarp tissue (exocarp, mesocarp, and endocarp) encircling the seeds are possible anatomical aspects of the fruit.

·         Seed anatomy, which is characteristic of seeds from dicotyledonous plants, may contain features including the seed coat, endosperm, and embryo.

f)       Tissue Types:

·         Different tissue types, such as cutaneous tissue (epidermis), ground tissue (parenchyma, collenchyma, sclerenchyma), and vascular tissue (xylem, phloem), are visible throughout the plant.

More thorough anatomical research would be required to examine particular adaptations, variances, and developmental factors within the species, though these anatomical features offer a broad understanding of the internal anatomy of Ipomoea carnea [3,5,15].

Distribution and Habitat of Ipomoea carnea

Geographical Description: Ipomoea carnea is an evergreen shrub that blooms and grows up to five meters tall. Over several years, the robust stem develops into a robust trunk with several branches growing from the base. The stem is greenish in color, erect, hairy, woody, and cylindrical in shape. It has alternating leaves. Its typical length is 1.24 to 2.74 meters, and its diameter is 0.5–0.7 cm. The leaves are lanceolate or heart-shaped, light green, and range in length from 10 to 25 cm. The leaf's lower surface is a paler shade of green than its upper, duller side. The leaves are about to disappear. Less sunlight can cause leaves to grow larger than leaves that get full sun [18]. Fruits are pink or light violet with a glabrous capsule and silky seeds; flowers are loose and have dichotomously branched axillary and terminal pedunculate cymes [17]. Across sections of Central America, South America, and the Caribbean, Ipomoea carnea is indigenous to tropical and subtropical regions of the Americas. It has, nevertheless, been dispersed and allowed to naturally occur in many other parts of the world, mostly in tropical and subtropical countries with appropriate climates. Its habitat and range are summarized as follows:

·         Native Distribution: Ipomoea carnea is indigenous to a large number of American nations, including areas of the Caribbean, Mexico, Central America (such as Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua), and South America (such as Brazil, Colombia, and Venezuela). It is found in several habitats within its native range, such as riparian zones, open forests, savannas, grasslands, and disturbed regions. [18]

·         Introduced and Naturalized Distribution: Ipomoea carnea has been brought to and naturalized in numerous areas beyond its native range because of its decorative value and adaptability. It has spread throughout sections of Africa, Asia, Australia, and several Pacific islands; it is most common in locations with warm, tropical or subtropical climates. In certain places, it has displaced native flora and upset the balance of the local ecology. It can flourish in disturbed environments like riverbanks, agricultural regions, and roadside ditches. [18]

·         Habitat: Habitats with plenty of sunlight and well-drained soils are common for Ipomoea carnea. It is typically found in open spaces, roadside ditches, riverbanks, and habitats that have been altered or degraded. As long as the soil is not waterlogged, the plant can grow in a variety of soil types, including sandy, loamy, and clay soils. In addition, it can endure occasional flooding and is frequently found in riparian zones, where it benefits from the presence of water but is also resilient to brief flooding [17,18].

·         Climate: Ipomoea carnea is sensitive to frost and cannot survive in areas with extended cold temperatures or freezing conditions. Sufficient rainfall or irrigation is essential for its growth and reproduction, though it can withstand brief droughts once established. Ipomoea carnea grows most effectively in warm, tropical, and subtropical climates with relatively high temperatures throughout the year. Ipomoea carnea is distributed widely, covering both its natural habitats in the Americas and imported regions across the globe. Its success as a colonizer in numerous places can be attributed to its resilience to diverse environmental circumstances and capacity to flourish in disturbed habitats. Its potential for invasion in some environments, however, emphasizes the necessity of cautious management and observation to avoid detrimental effects on natural biodiversity [17,18].

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION

Overview Of Phytochemicals Present in Ipomoea carnea

Ipomoea carnea has a wide variety of phytochemical components in different regions of the plant, all of which contribute to the biological characteristics of the plant. The roots, for example, are discovered to include chemicals such 2-Ethyl-1,3-dimethylbenzene, 2-(12-Pentadecynyloxy) tetrahydro-2H-pyran, and 3-Furanyl [2-hydroxy-4-methyl-2- -(2-methyl propyl) cyclopentyl]-methanone. Furthermore, components found in the roots include 2,2-Dideuterooctadecanal, hexadecanoic acid, and linoleic acid. Going on, the stems include substances that contribute to their chemical makeup, such as 1-Octadecanol, Hexadecanoic acid, 2-(12-Pentadecynyloxy) tetrahydro-2H-pyran, and epiglobulol. These elements highlight the stem's role in the physiology of the plant and its possible medicinal qualities [19]. Another important component of Ipomoea carnea is its leaves, which have a wide range of chemicals. Hexadecanoic acid, stearic acid, 1,2 diethyl phthalate, n-octadecanol, octacosane, hexatriacontane, tetracontane, and 3-diethylamino-1-propanol are among the substances found, according to studies [19,20,22]. Further demonstrating the pharmacological potential of this plant part is the presence of swainsonine and calystegines B1, B2, B3, and C1 in the aqueous ethanolic extract of the leaves [20].

Moreover, a wide range of phytochemicals, including flavonoids, tannins, glycosides, alkaloids, carbohydrates, and phenolic compounds, have been found to be present in Ipomoea carnea flowers [20,21,22]. Swainsonine and calystegines B1, B2, B3, and C1 are found in the flowers, which emphasizes their medicinal value [20]. Finally, swainsonine and calystegines B1, B2, B3, and C1 have also been found in Ipomoea carnea seeds, indicating that these bioactive substances are present consistently throughout the plant. This thorough analysis of the phytochemical components found in Ipomoea carnea's different sections highlights the plant's potential medicinal benefits and justifies more research for use in pharmaceutical applications [21].

Figure 2 Chemical structures of compounds reported in Ipomoea carnea [22]

Figure 3 Chemical structures of compounds reported in Ipomoea carnea [22]

 

Bioactive Compounds and Their Potential Effects

Ipomoea carnea is a flowering plant native to the American tropics. While primarily grown as an ornamental plant, it contains various bioactive compounds that have garnered interest for their potential effects. Here are some of these compounds and their potential effects:

Ø  Cardiac glycosides: Ipomoea carnea contains cardiac glycosides such as digitoxigenin and gitoxigenin. These compounds have been studied for their potential cardiovascular effects. Cardiac glycosides have historically been used in medicine to treat heart conditions like congestive heart failure and arrhythmias. They work by increasing the force of heart contractions and regulating heart rhythm.

Ø  Alkaloids: Alkaloids are nitrogenous compounds found in many plants, including Ipomoea carnea. Some alkaloids found in this plant include lysergic acid and its derivatives. These compounds may have psychoactive effects and have been studied for their potential in treating neurological disorders or as recreational drugs.

Ø  Flavonoids: Flavonoids are a diverse group of plant metabolites with various biological activities. They are known for their antioxidant properties and potential health benefits, including anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer effects. Flavonoids found in Ipomoea carnea may contribute to its medicinal properties.

Ø  Tannins: Tannins are polyphenolic compounds found in many plants, including Ipomoea carnea. They have astringent properties and are known for their ability to bind and precipitate proteins. Tannins may have antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory effects and could contribute to the plant's medicinal properties.

Ø  Saponins: Saponins are glycosides with foaming properties. They have been studied for their potential cholesterol-lowering effects and their ability to boost the immune system. Saponins found in Ipomoea carnea may contribute to its medicinal properties.

It's essential to note that while Ipomoea carnea contains these bioactive compounds, their concentrations and effects can vary depending on factors such as plant age, growing conditions, and preparation methods. Further research is needed to fully understand the potential health benefits and risks associated with the consumption or use of Ipomoea carnea and its bioactive compounds. Additionally, some compounds found in Ipomoea carnea may be toxic in high doses, so caution should be exercised when using it for medicinal purposes. [19,22]

ECOLOGICAL ROLE AND IMPACT

Ecological significance in various ecosystems

Ipomoea carnea plays several ecological roles in various ecosystems where it is found. Here are some of its ecological significances [19]:

1. Habitat and Food Source: Ipomoea carnea serves as a habitat and a food source for various organisms in its native ecosystems. The plant provides shelter for insects, birds, and small animals, especially in its dense growth forms. Additionally, the flowers of Ipomoea carnea attract pollinators such as bees and butterflies, contributing to the pollination of other plant species in the ecosystem.

2. Soil Stabilization: The extensive root system of Ipomoea carnea helps stabilize soil, particularly in areas prone to erosion, such as riverbanks and slopes. By preventing soil erosion, the plant helps maintain soil fertility and structure, which benefits other plants and organisms in the ecosystem.

3. Nitrogen Fixation: Some species of morning glories, including Ipomoea carnea, have been found to have nitrogen-fixing abilities. Nitrogen fixation is the process by which certain bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen into a form that plants can use. This ability allows Ipomoea carnea to enrich the soil with nitrogen, benefiting neighboring plants and contributing to overall ecosystem health.

4. Allelopathic Effects: Ipomoea carnea produces allelopathic chemicals that can inhibit the growth of other plant species in its vicinity. This allelopathic effect can influence plant community composition and diversity in ecosystems where Ipomoea carnea is present.

5. Invasive Potential: In some regions, Ipomoea carnea has been introduced as an ornamental plant but has since become invasive, particularly in disturbed habitats and along watercourses. Its rapid growth and ability to form dense thickets can outcompete native vegetation, leading to ecosystem disruption and loss of biodiversity.

6. Phytoremediation: Some studies have investigated the potential of Ipomoea carnea for phytoremediation, the use of plants to remove or neutralize pollutants from the environment. The plant's ability to accumulate heavy metals and other contaminants from soil and water makes it potentially useful for cleaning up polluted sites.

Overall, Ipomoea carnea plays diverse ecological roles in various ecosystems, ranging from providing habitat and food to other organisms, stabilizing soil, enriching soil with nitrogen, influencing plant community dynamics, and potentially aiding in phytoremediation. However, its invasive potential in certain areas highlights the importance of managing its spread to protect native biodiversity and ecosystem integrity [19,20,22].

Interaction With Other Plant and Animal Species

The interactions of Ipomoea carnea, or pink morning glory, with other plant and animal species, are multifaceted and influence the dynamics of the ecosystem. Here are some notable interactions:

·         Pollinators: Ipomoea carnea relies on various pollinators, including bees, butterflies, moths, and hummingbirds, for pollination. These animals visit the flowers to obtain nectar and inadvertently transfer pollen between flowers, facilitating reproduction in Ipomoea carnea. In return, the plant provides a food source for these pollinators, contributing to their survival and reproductive success.

·         Herbivores: While Ipomoea carnea serves as a food source for some herbivores, including certain insects, mammals, and birds, it also possesses chemical defenses that deter herbivory. Some herbivores have evolved mechanisms to tolerate or detoxify these chemical defenses, allowing them to feed on Ipomoea carnea without being negatively affected.

·         Allelopathy: Ipomoea carnea produces allelopathic compounds that can inhibit the germination and growth of neighboring plant species. These allelochemicals give Ipomoea carnea a competitive advantage by reducing competition for resources such as light, water, and nutrients. However, this allelopathic effect can also impact plant diversity and community composition in the ecosystem.

·         Seed Dispersal: The seeds of Ipomoea carnea are dispersed by various mechanisms, including wind, water, and animals. Animals such as birds and mammals may consume the fruits of Ipomoea carnea and disperse the seeds through their droppings, contributing to the plant's dispersal and colonization of new areas.

·         Soil Microorganisms: The root system of Ipomoea carnea interacts with soil microorganisms, including mycorrhizal fungi and nitrogen-fixing bacteria. These interactions can influence nutrient cycling, soil fertility, and plant growth, ultimately affecting the overall health and functioning of the ecosystem.

·         Competitive Interactions: Invasive populations of Ipomoea carnea can form dense monocultures that outcompete native vegetation for resources. This competitive displacement can lead to reduced biodiversity and changes in ecosystem structure and function, impacting other plant and animal species in the ecosystem.

Understanding these interactions is essential for comprehensively assessing the ecological impacts of Ipomoea carnea and implementing effective management strategies to mitigate its negative effects, particularly in areas where it has become invasive [20,22].

Invasive Potential and Environmental Impact

Ipomoea carnea has the potential to be invasive and has a significant influence on the ecosystem. Here is a more comprehensive summary of this possibility:

Ø  Aggressive Growth: Ipomoea carnea, characterized by its vigorous growth rate, exhibits a propensity to quickly dominate landscapes. Its ability to rapidly cover large areas outpaces the growth of native vegetation, thereby altering the ecological balance within affected habitats.

Ø  Allelopathy: This species employs allelopathic mechanisms, releasing chemicals that hinder the germination and growth of neighboring plants. By inhibiting the establishment of other species, Ipomoea carnea gains a competitive advantage, further consolidating its dominance in invaded areas.

Ø  Habitat Alteration: As Ipomoea carnea spreads, it forms dense thickets that can fundamentally alter the structure and composition of ecosystems. This alteration often results in the displacement of native flora, leading to reduced biodiversity and ecosystem function. Additionally, the formation of these thickets can fragment habitats, isolating populations of native species and hindering their ability to disperse and interact [19].

Ø  Impact on Waterways: Ipomoea carnea is frequently found along riverbanks and watercourses, where its dense growth can impede water flow and exacerbate erosion. By destabilizing riverbanks and altering the natural flow patterns of water bodies, this invasive species contributes to habitat degradation and poses challenges for aquatic ecosystems. Furthermore, the modification of riparian habitats can have cascading effects on the abundance and diversity of aquatic species, disrupting ecological processes and ecosystem services.

Ø  Toxicity: While Ipomoea carnea possesses ornamental value, particularly in horticultural settings, its toxicity presents significant challenges in other contexts. The ingestion of this plant by livestock can lead to poisoning, affecting both agricultural productivity and animal welfare. Consequently, its presence can necessitate alterations in grazing practices and land management strategies to mitigate the risk of toxicity to livestock [22].

Ø  Difficulty of Control: Controlling the spread of Ipomoea carnea poses considerable challenges due to its robust reproductive capabilities and resilience. The plant produces copious amounts of seeds, which can remain viable in the soil for extended periods, facilitating its persistence and spread. Additionally, Ipomoea carnea can regenerate from fragments of its root system, further complicating control efforts. Effective management strategies typically involve a combination of approaches, including mechanical removal, herbicide application, and restoration of native vegetation [19].

Ipomoea carnea's invasive behavior underscores the importance of proactive management and conservation efforts to safeguard native ecosystems and biodiversity. By implementing strategies to prevent its spread and mitigate its impact, stakeholders can work towards preserving the integrity and resilience of natural habitats [4,19,22].

MEDICINAL PROPERTIES

Ipomoea carnea has been used medicinally in many cultures. Extracts from various sections of the plant have been used in traditional medical traditions, mainly in Africa, Asia, and South America, to treat a number of diseases. The plant is rich in alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, and other bioactive substances that contribute to its therapeutic properties. It has been used medicinally as an analgesic for pain relief, an antipyretic for fever reduction, and an anti-inflammatory drug for inflammation treatment. It has also been used traditionally to treat illnesses such as rheumatism, arthritis, and gastrointestinal problems. However, while Ipomoea carnea shows promise in traditional medicine, further scientific research is needed to confirm its efficacy and safety for modern medicinal applications. Before utilizing any herbal cure for medicinal purposes, always consult with a healthcare practitioner.

Traditional Uses in Folk Medicine

Traditional applications (ethnobotany) The species is utilized as a folk medicine in traditional medical systems such as Ayurveda, Siddha, and Unani. The species is most effectively used in skin illnesses; specifically, the milky juice (latex) of the plant is beneficial in the treatment of leukoderma [32]. Because of its anti-inflammatory properties, latex is used as an antiseptic to treat wounds in traditional medicine [35]. The whole plant extract made in hot water is widely used as an antirheumatic drug, and it is also thought to lessen the teratogenic effect of cyclophosphamide [33]. Many traditional medicines employ it as an aphrodisiac, purgative, and cathartic. Several studies have demonstrated that plant extracts have antimicrobial and antifungal properties. The plant's aqueous extract exhibits neuromuscular blocking activity, and the plant has been shown to have antioxidant, anti-diabetic, wound healing, cardiovascular, and hepatoprotective properties [4,31,34]. It has also been found to have harmful effects on a variety of animals. Leaves toxic and poisonous effects on the nervous system have just lately been described [4]. In rats, an aqueous extract of the leaves was found to be embryotoxic, causing skeletal and visceral abnormalities, deformities, and decreased mother reproductive performance [25]. Moreover, in African culture, Ipomoea carnea leaves are said to be useful in treating piles, rheumatic pain, toothache, and other inflammatory disorders [35]. It has been investigated the aforementioned claims and demonstrated that the plant's leaf extract had anti-nociceptive and anti-inflammatory activities. The plant extract releases a precursor that plays an important role in the nociceptive mechanism, inhibiting pain development and thereby alleviating symptoms associated with various inflammations [18].

Pharmacological Studies

§  Immuno-modulatory effect: In female rats, the nor tropane alkaloids calystegines B1, B2, B3, and C1, as well as the indolizidine alkaloid swainsonine of Ipomoea carnea, have an effect on the spleen/body weight ratio, the thymus/body weight ratio, and histological changes [23].

§  Anti-oxidant activity: Antioxidants are a type of chemical that prevents other molecules from oxidizing by quenching reactive free radicals, and so may have health advantages in the prevention of degenerative diseases. Ipomoea carnea's leaves, stems, and flowers contain a lot of antioxidants like flavonoids. Polyphenols and flavonoids contained in Ipomoea carnea have been proven to have strong DPPH radical scavenging properties. Scavenging is essential for avoiding the detrimental effects of free radicals in diseases such as cancer. The floral region of this plant, in particular, contains more anti-oxidant phytoconstituents. The leaves, stems, and flowers of Ipomoea carnea are rich in phenols and flavonoids [24].

§  Wound healing activity: Fresh Ipomoea carnea flowers were extracted with 95% ethanol, the extract was concentrated in a vacuum, and the aqueous concentrate was treated with successive fractions of different solvents, including diethyl ether, chloroform, and ethyl acetate. The fresh blooms of Ipomoea carnea contain kaempferol and its 3-O—D glucoside. These were recognized to have a high level of wound healing capacity. Wound healing typically starts with an inflammatory phase, which is followed by fibroblast proliferation, collagen fibre formation, scar shrinking, and drying. These stages occur simultaneously but are independent to one another. These actions are comparable to Sulphathiazole and significantly superior to wounds that have not been treated [25]

§  Anti-Inflammatory Activity: Aqueous extracts of Ipomoea carnea's mature green leaves were used to test the plant's anti-inflammatory properties. The dosages of the extracts were 250 mg and 500 mg per kilogram of body weight, respectively. According to the study, Ipomoea carnea leaves outperform etoricoxib (6 mg/kg) in having a significant anti-inflammatory effect at a dosage of 500 mg/kg [26].

§  Antifungal Activity: The antifungal properties of Ipomoea carnea have been observed against Curvularia lunata and Alternaria alternative. Extracts of Ipomoea carnea in methanol and chloroform have antifungal activity against eleven pathogenic and non-pathogenic fungi. Ipomoea carnea leaf antifungal fractions were extracted using test organisms such as Cladosporium coumarone and Colletotrichum gloeosporioides. The effectiveness of the purified fraction was confirmed by the dose-dependent inhibition of the Alternaria alternative and poor spore germination. The active fraction was discovered to consist of (E)-octadecyl p-coumarate and (Z)-octadecyl p-coumarate [15].

§  Cardiovascular Activity: The isolated frog heart became momentarily occluded for five to ten seconds upon the injection of an aqueous extract of Ipomoea carnea. As the dosage was raised, the duration was extended by up to two minutes. The positive inotropic effect of Ipomoea carnea on isolated frog hearts may be due to intracellular calcium release or salt extrusion [5]. Upon adding 1 g/ml of atropine to the extract, the stimulant action became strong and the early different phase was inhibited [4].

§  Nervous System activity: The poisonous plant Ipomoea carnea adversely affects the central nervous system. Goats fed fresh leaves, flowers, and stems of Ipomoea carnea for 45 to 60 days showed hirsute coat, depression, difficulty standing up, ataxia, hypermetria, wide-based stance, incoordination of muscular movements, intense tremors, spastic paresis, abnormal postural reactions, nystagmus, hyperreflexia, hypersensitivity to sound, head tilting, and loss of equilibrium. The cerebellum is one of the main organs harmed by Ipomoea carnea poisoning. This organ processes information from other brain regions, mainly the spinal cord and sensory receptors, to coordinate the motions of skeletal muscles [1].

§  Anti-hypoglycemic activity: Rats were given intraperitoneally 150 mg/kg of dissolved alloxan in distilled water. After 48 hours, blood samples were extracted under light ether anaesthesia from the retro-orbital venous plexus, and the serum was centrifuged to measure the glucose content. The term "hyperglycaemic animals" refers to rats whose blood glucose levels were higher than 250 mg/dl. Six groups of ten hyperglycaemic rats were then created: a group of healthy rats; a group of diabetic rats acting as a positive control; a group of diabetic rats receiving 100 mg/kg b.wt. of ethanol extract from leaves; a group of diabetic rats receiving 100 mg/kg b.wt. of ethanol extract from flowers; a group of diabetic rats receiving 20 mg/kg b.wt. of rutin; and a sixth group of diabetic rats receiving 100 mg/kg b.wt. of rutin orally for ten days in a row. Within 48 hours of starting the extracts and Metformin, the presence of hyperglycemia was confirmed. One day after the last dose of either pharmaceutical treatment, a blood sample was extracted from the retro-orbital venous plexus of eighteen food-deprived rats and centrifuged for ten minutes at 3000 rpm. In order to measure quinine amine, the blood glucose level in the serum was obtained using a test reagent kit (Bio diagnostic, Egypt). The absorbance was measured at 510 nm, and the results were expressed in milligrams per decilitre [17].

§  Antimicrobial activity: The antibacterial qualities of Ipomoea carnea components have only been the subject of a small number of research. Despite the fact that other researchers have studied the plants, the literature evaluation reveals that no comparable study on leaf extracts has been conducted. There has been evidence of antibacterial activity in crude extracts of I. carnea leaves, including n-hexane, ethyl acetate, acetone, ethanol, and acetone fraction (fraction A) of acetone extract. Pseudomonas aeruginosa is killed by the crude ethanol extract, but Proteus vulgaris and Salmonella typhimurium are killed by the crude acetone extract. This study is the first to show that the ethanol extract of I. Carnea leaves inhibit Pseudomonas aeruginosa while the acetone extract inhibits Proteus vulgaris and Salmonella typhimurium [17].

§  Hepatoprotective activity: Intraperitoneal injection of 5 ml/kg of 25% carbon tetrachloride (CCL4) in liquid paraffin resulted in liver damage in rats. The rats were split into four groups of ten, with the first group receiving a daily oral dose of 1 ml saline for a week before and following liver damage, and the second and third groups receiving daily oral doses of Ipomoea carnea leaves and flowers ethanol extracts (100 mg/kg body weight) for a week prior to and following liver damage, and the extract administration continuing for an additional month following liver injury; the fourth group of rats had liver damage pre-treated with a daily oral dosage of (25 mg/kg body weight) silymarin as a standard reference medication, and the drug was given for an additional month following liver damage. Following an overnight fast, rats under anaesthesia had their whole blood extracted from the retro-orbital venous plexus through the canthus of their eyes. Blood samples were obtained at the beginning, one month, and 72 hours after the injection of carbon tetrachloride, in addition to every month. To separate the serum, centrifugation was employed. An enzyme called alkaline phosphatase (ALP), aspartate aminotransferase (AST, GOT), and an aminotransferase (ALT, GPT) are all present in the blood. Data analysis was done using the Student T test 22 [17].

§  Anti-diabetic activity: One study examined the anti-diabetic effects of Ipomoea carnea leaves in rats that were neither diabetic nor streptozotocin-induced. In rats, the Ipomoea carnea aqueous extract significantly reduces blood glucose levels. It increases glucose tolerance in healthy rats [13].

§  Anti-cancer activity: Research conducted in-vitro and in-vivo has shown significant anticancer activities of the hydroalcoholic extract of Ipomoea carnea leaves, with a dose-dependent effect. Phytochemicals like flavonoids, phenols, and alkaloids are probably to blame for this [5].

§  Anxiolytic activity: Ipomoea carnea appears to have a sedative-hypnotic central depressive effect. Using the open field test, hole board test, and elevated plus maze paradigms along with diazepam as a positive control, researchers looked at the anxiolytic effects of the aqueous and methanolic extracts of Ipomoea carnea leaves (32.50 and 16.25 mg/kg intraperitoneally) in mice. The fatal dose 50 of Ipomoea carnea methanolic extract (ICLME) and leaf aqueous extract (ICLAE) in mice was 325 mg/kg i.p. body weight. ICLME showed a stronger anxiolytic effect in comparison to diazepam and ICLAE (32.5mg/kg and 16.2mg/kg). The effects of the ICLAE and ICLME showed a dosage-dependent substantial increase in the number of head dipping behaviours in full board tests at doses of 32.5 and 16.2 mg/kg when compared to control and diazepam 1 mg/kg, 2 mg/kg as a benchmark. According to these results, ICLAE and ICLME may have anxiolytic qualities [3]. Mature goats were used in the studies; all the animals showed abnormal behaviour and consciousness, and they also exhibited unusual behaviour for goats (ability to stand and posture), with one goat dying [16].

§  Glycosidase inhibitory activity: Using gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy analysis of Ipomoea carnea plant material, [20] it was found that the goats' presence of the glycoside inhibitors calystegine B2 and C1, as well as the mannosidase inhibitor swainsonine, was consistent with a plant-induced mannosidosis [22].

§  Anticonvulsant activity: Rout et al. (2013) reported that the polar extract of I. carnea, at a dose ranging from 200 mg/kg to 400 mg/kg, effectively attenuated the MES-induced convulsion in both the extension phase and stupor phase [28].

§  Peroxide production activity: A study conducted by Hueza et al., 2003a on rat serosa cells revealed that the injection of a modest dosage of Ipomoea carnea boosted body process activity and macrophage production of peroxide [30].

§  Sedative activity: In 1975, Ehattacharya and Ray et al. observed that the non-alkaloidal and non-saponifiable fraction that was extracted from I. carnea leaves on rats had a depressive effect on the central nervous system [27].

§  Mosquitocidal activity: In 1992, Kuppusamy and Manoharan et al. showed that an extract from I. carnea demonstrates the synergistic impact of insecticides against Anopheles stephensi, the malaria vector [31].

Potential Applications in Modern Medicine

Ipomoea carnea, which has long been used in traditional medicine, is becoming more well-known due to its possible uses in contemporary healthcare. Numerous bioactive substances found in the plant, including phenolic and flavonoid chemicals, have been found through research to contribute to its potentially beneficial medicinal qualities. Its analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties stand out among them, indicating possible use in the treatment of inflammatory diseases and pain relief. Because of the plant's strong antioxidant properties, it may be able to help treat conditions linked to oxidative stress, including cancer, neurological diseases, and cardiovascular issues [27].

Furthermore, Ipomoea carnea has been proven to have antibacterial qualities, working well against a range of bacterial and fungal infections. This has raised curiosity about its possible application in the creation of novel antimicrobial drugs, especially in light of the growing prevalence of antibiotic resistance. Furthermore, some research indicates that the plant may have anti-diabetic qualities, maybe via improving insulin sensitivity or controlling glucose metabolism, providing a natural alternative for the treatment of diabetes [29].

Ipomoea carnea may be used to treat neurological conditions including Parkinson's and Alzheimer's due to its neuroprotective qualities, which are probably related to its anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects. Additionally, early studies suggest that certain of the plant's chemicals can cause cancer cells to undergo apoptosis, underscoring the plant's potential as a cutting-edge anticancer treatment. The antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant qualities of Ipomoea carnea may help develop topical therapies for wounds and skin disorders in the field of wound healing [29]. The herb has also demonstrated hepatoprotective properties, which may help treat liver illnesses brought on by toxins or viral infections like hepatitis. While its anti-ulcer activity suggests prospective applications in treating gastric ulcers and related gastrointestinal difficulties, its anticonvulsant characteristics imply potential use in treating epilepsy and other seizure disorders [30].

Despite these encouraging results, it's crucial to remember that Ipomoea carnea still includes hazardous chemicals, thus more study is required to guarantee its safe and efficient therapeutic application. In order to establish safe, standardized treatments and validate these therapeutic characteristics, intensive research, and clinical trials are necessary. Ipomoea carnea has the potential to become a valuable source of innovative treatments for contemporary medicine if these obstacles are surmounted [29,31].

TOXICOLOGICAL ASPECTS

Presence of Toxic Compounds

Several poisonous substances found in Ipomoea carnea have the potential to damage both people and animals. The following are the main harmful substances present in this plant:

1.      Swainsonine: An indolizidine alkaloid that causes locoism by inhibiting the alpha-mannosidase enzyme. This disorder affects the central nervous system, leading to neurological symptoms in animals that include depression, incoordination, and abnormal behaviour [31].

2.      Calystegines: These are a class of nor tropane alkaloids that block the action of glycosidases, which are enzymes that break down carbohydrates. These enzymes' inhibition can impair regular cellular processes and increase the general toxicity of the plant [31].

3.      The Convolvulaceae Resin Glycosides: Having laxative qualities, these substances can upset the digestive system and result in symptoms including vomiting, diarrhoea, and headaches [19,34].

4.      Lysergic Acid Derivatives: Ergot alkaloids, which are linked to lysergic acid, are found in certain Ipomoea species. Psychoactive effects such as hallucinations and unpredictable behaviour can be caused by these substances [31].

Ipomoea carnea is dangerous if consumed because of the presence of these harmful chemicals. Ensuring that animals cannot get this plant and handling it carefully is essential [30].

Effect on Livestock and Wildlife

Ipomoea carnea's poisonous chemicals have several negative consequences on cattle and human health. The following are each's effects:

·         Effects on Human Life

1.      Neurological Symptoms: Consuming Ipomoea carnea can cause symptoms like trembling, disorientation, lethargy, and, in extreme situations, seizures. Swainsonine, an alkaloid, is mostly to blame for these effects.

2.      Gastrointestinal Disturbances: The plant can cause diarrhoea, vomiting, nausea, and abdominal pain when consumed. If these symptoms are not treated right once, they may lead to dehydration and other problems.

3.      Respiratory Problems: The smoke from burning the plant can irritate the respiratory system, leading to breathing difficulties, wheezing, and coughing.

4.      Dermatological Reactions: Sensitive people may experience rashes, allergic reactions, and skin irritation after coming into contact with the plant's sap.

5.      Liver Damage: Extended consumption can result in liver toxicity, which can cause weariness, jaundice, and other symptoms associated with the liver.

Similar symptoms are seen in animals and pets that consume the plant, putting them at risk as well. To avoid unintentional poisoning, keep Ipomoea carnea away from children and grazing animals [30,35].

·         Effects on Livestock [4,19,34]:

1.      Neurological Disorders: Animals fed Ipomoea carnea may have locomotion symptoms, such as depression, tremors, and alterations in behaviour. Swainsonine interferes with normal nervous system function, which is why this is happening.

2.      Reproductive Problems: Animals that graze on this plant for extended periods have been reported to experience reproductive problems and congenital malformations.

3.      Weight Loss and Poor Condition: Because of ongoing toxicity and gastrointestinal problems, affected animals frequently suffer from severe weight loss and worsening conditions.

4.      Gastrointestinal Problems: Just like people, animals can have diarrhoea, vomiting, and nausea, which can dehydrate them and negatively impact their general health.

5.      Fatalities: Consuming significant amounts of the plant can be lethal in extreme circumstances, especially if it is not recognized and treated promptly.

·         Prevention and Management

1.      For Humans: It's vital to inform people about the risks associated with Ipomoea carnea and to steer clear of utilizing it in herbal treatments or cooking. When working with the plant, gloves and protective clothes should be worn to avoid coming into touch with the skin.

2.      For Livestock: It is the responsibility of farmers and livestock owners to periodically monitor grazing areas and make sure that pastures are free of Ipomoea carnea. Animals must be removed from the contaminated location and given quick veterinary care if ingestion is suspected.

Effective steps to safeguard the health of people and animals can be taken by being aware of the threats posed by Ipomoea carnea [30,32].

Human Health Concerns

Ipomoea carnea, a toxic plant, poses significant health concerns for humans, impacting the nervous system, gastrointestinal system, respiratory system, skin, and liver. Neurological effects include confusion, lethargy, tremors, seizures, and paralysis, caused by the alkaloid swainsonine. Gastrointestinal distress, such as nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, and diarrhea, results from Convolvulaceae resin glycosides. Respiratory problems, including coughing, throat irritation, and severe distress, can occur from inhaling the plant's smoke or dust, posing particular danger to individuals with pre-existing conditions [35]. Direct contact with the sap can cause skin irritation, rashes, and allergic reactions, varying in severity. Prolonged ingestion of the plant's toxic compounds can lead to liver damage, with symptoms like jaundice and fatigue. To mitigate these risks, it is crucial to avoid ingesting the plant, use protective gear when handling it, and refrain from burning it. Educating communities about its toxic nature and spreading awareness through informational materials, workshops, and healthcare collaboration can prevent accidental poisonings. Prompt medical attention is necessary in cases of ingestion or severe skin contact. By implementing preventive measures and promoting awareness, the health risks associated with Ipomoea carnea can be significantly reduced, ensuring the safety of individuals who may come into contact with this toxic plant [34,35].

CULTIVATION AND CONSERVATION OF IPOMOEA CARNEA

Native to South America, Ipomoea carnea is a tropical plant. Its ecological significance and aesthetic appeal are just two of the many reasons why it should be preserved and nurtured [1,4].

Ø  Cultivation:

1)      Climate and soil: Warm weather and well-drained soil are ideal for Ipomoea carnea growth. It can tolerate little shade, but it loves direct sunlight.

2)      Propagation: Cuttings or seeds can be used to propagate it. Scarification of seeds before sowing is recommended to increase germination rates.

3)      Watering: Once grown, it can withstand drought, although regular watering is still required, particularly during dry spells.

4)      Pruning: Pruning can promote business and help keep it in shape. Regularly remove any damaged or dead branches.

5)      Pests and diseases: Watch out for diseases like fungal infections and pests like spider mites and aphids. If discovered, take quick action.

Ø  Conservation:

1)      Habitat Protection: Ipomoea carnea conservation depends on the preservation of the natural habitats in which it grows. This entails protecting wetlands and avoiding habitat degradation brought on by agriculture or urbanization.

2)      Invasive Species Management: Ipomoea carnea has the potential to outcompete native plants in some areas and turn invasive. To preserve natural biodiversity, it must be closely observed and its spread must be reined in.

3)      Education and Awareness: Raising public awareness of the value of native plants like Ipomoea carnea for the environment can encourage conservation efforts and appreciation.

Overall, Ipomoea carnea conservation and ecological sustainability can be enhanced by ethical cultivation practices that take into account the plant's potential for invasion.

Agricultural Practices for Ipomoea carnea

Ipomoea carnea can be invasive and poisonous to cattle, hence it is not commonly grown for agricultural use. However, there are a few ways in which it can be managed in agricultural contexts in some native or naturalized regions:

1.      Livestock Exclusion: Because Ipomoea carnea is harmful when consumed, farmers may need to take precautions to keep livestock away from regions where it grows naturally.

2.      Hedgerows And Windbreaks: Ipomoea carnea can be included in hedgerows and windbreaks in some agricultural systems. Care must be taken, nonetheless, to stop it from spreading into grazing or agricultural regions.

3.      Soil Stabilization: Ipomoea carnea is helpful for stabilizing soil in regions that are prone to erosion because of its deep root structure. To assist stop soil erosion, it can be planted along slopes, riverbanks, and other sites that are vulnerable to erosion.

4.      Wildlife Habitat: Although it has nothing to do with farming, keeping Ipomoea carnea patches intact can help support insects and birds, among other wildlife, and this can indirectly improve agricultural ecosystems.

5.      Invasive Species Management: Control methods may be required in agricultural regions where Ipomoea carnea is invasive in order to keep it from outcompeting desirable crops or pasture species. This can involve manual labour-intensive techniques like pulling or mowing, as well as chemical control techniques if they are thought to be suitable and safe for the environment.

In general, even though Ipomoea carnea hasn't historically been grown as a crop, methods for managing it in agricultural settings frequently focus on reducing its detrimental effects on cattle and natural ecosystems [1,19].

Conservation Status and Challenges of Ipomoea carnea

Although its level of conservation varies by region, it is frequently regarded as invasive in some places, endangering the biodiversity of native plants. Restoration of the habitat, surveillance, and management of invasive populations are among the measures used to control its spread. Here are specifics about its state of conservation and the difficulties it faces:

Ø  Conservation Status

Global Conservation Status: According to major conservation organizations like the IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature), Ipomoea carnea is not currently listed as threatened or endangered. Its versatility and extensive presence help it remain stable in a variety of situations [1].

Ø  Challenges

1.      Invasiveness:

·         Ecosystem Disruption: Ipomoea carnea is well-known for its tendency for invasion, particularly in marshes and around bodies of water. It can grow into dense thickets that outcompete native plants and change the composition of the area.

·         Biodiversity Loss: Biodiversity loss can occur when a dominant plant species displaces native species, affecting the fauna that depends on those native plants.

2.      Toxicity:

·         Livestock Poisoning: Livestock are harmed by the plant's poisonous chemicals, which include swainsonine. In animals like cattle and goats, consumption can result in neurological conditions and even death.

·         Human Health Risks: Risks to human health exist, however, they are less frequent. The plant can pose a threat if it is consumed either directly or indirectly through tainted meat or milk from animals that have been poisoned.

3.      Control And Management:

·         Herbicide Resistance: Due to the plant's rapid growth and possible resistance, it has been difficult to manage Ipomoea carnea with herbicides in some areas.

·         Mechanical Control: Because the plant can regenerate from seeds and roots left behind, physical removal is labour-intensive and frequently only temporary.

·         Biological Control: It can be challenging to locate biological control agents that are both ecologically safe and effective (such as pathogens or insects), and there is always a chance that unexpected effects on non-target species could occur.

·         Management Strategies:

a.       Integrated Management: For efficient management, a combination of mechanical removal, herbicide application, and biological control techniques is frequently advised.

b.      Monitoring And Early Detection: To stop Ipomoea carnea from establishing itself and spreading to other locations, regular monitoring and early intervention are essential.

c.       Public Awareness and Education: Educating the neighbourhood about the dangers of Ipomoea carnea and advocating for non-invasive, substitute plant species for gardening and farming.

Ipomoea carnea is not at risk of extinction, but because of its toxicity and invasiveness, it presents serious ecological and economic problems. Research on control strategies must continue along with concerted efforts to ensure effective management [19,30].

Sustainable Management and Approaches of Ipomoea carnea

Several strategies are involved in the sustainable management of Ipomoea carnea [34,35]:

1)      Invasive Species Management: Ipomoea carnea has the potential to outcompete native plants in some areas. Controlling its spread using techniques like hand removal, herbicides, or biological control with natural enemies is known as sustainable management.

2)      Habitat Restoration: Maintaining biodiversity in areas where Ipomoea carnea invasions have occurred depends on restoring natural habitats. Replanting native plants, reducing erosion, and reestablishing organic water flow are a few examples of this.

3)      Awareness And Education: It is crucial to inform the public about the dangers of the Ipomoea carnea invasion and the steps to stop it from spreading. This may entail community cooperation, outreach initiatives, and signs in impacted regions.

4)      Research And Monitoring: To ensure efficient management, ongoing research into the biology, ecology, and management strategies of Ipomoea carnea is required. Monitoring infected areas on a regular basis aid in tracking the invasion's spread and evaluating the success of control tactics.

5)      Integrated Pest Management (IPM): To manage invasive species like Ipomoea carnea while limiting environmental damage, IPM approaches combine numerous techniques, including biological management, cultural practices, and chemical treatments.

6)      Community Engagement: Including nearby communities in management initiatives promotes sustainability and may result in greater long-lasting results. Projects including habitat restoration, monitoring, and removal are open to community members.

Sustainable management of Ipomoea carnea can be accomplished by utilizing these strategies in unity, protecting natural habitats and biodiversity[34].

RESEARCH GAPS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS OF IPOMOEA CARNEA

Numerous elements of Ipomoea carnea have been the subject of research, including its effects on the environment, phytochemistry, therapeutic qualities, and toxicology [19,30]. Nonetheless, a number of study gaps and prospective avenues for future investigation remain:

§  Ecological Impacts: More research may be done to determine how the plant interacts with native animals and plants, including whether it can be invasive in certain environments and whether it has allelopathic or competitive impacts [31].

§  Phytochemistry: Despite the identification of several phytochemical ingredients, a thorough chemical profile is still required to find new bioactive chemicals that may have therapeutic uses [32].

§  Medicinal Properties: Ipomoea carnea extracts and isolated chemicals have been used traditionally for medicinal purposes, but further research is necessary to confirm their safety and effectiveness for several purposes, including antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer activity [19].

§  Toxicology: Additional toxicological research is necessary to clarify the mechanisms of toxicity, identify particular toxic chemicals, and evaluate the possible health risks connected to exposure to various plant components, given its toxicity to animals and possible concerns to human health [34].

§  Genetic Studies: Population genetics studies and genetic diversity assessments may shed light on the dispersal patterns, evolutionary history, and adaptive capacity of Ipomoea carnea populations. This information may then be used to guide management and conservation efforts[34].

§  Biocontrol And Management: Studies on efficient control measures, such as herbicides, biological control agents, and cultural practices, may be able to reduce the detrimental effects of Ipomoea carnea on human health, agriculture, and ecosystems [33].

§  Implications Of Climate Change: As environmental conditions shift due to climate change, research examining how shifting climatic factors affect Ipomoea carnea's distribution, phenology, and ecological interactions could throw a spotlight on the species' future course and management issues [32].

It will be possible to make more informed decisions about the conservation, management, and use of Ipomoea carnea by filling up these research gaps and going into these new areas.

Current Gaps in Knowledge of Ipomoea carnea

Ipomoea carnea is a fascinating plant that can be harmful. Even though its ecology, distribution, and toxicology are well understood, there may still be unanswered questions regarding its genetic diversity, possible medical uses, and the entire range of ecological implications [36]. Furthermore, additional investigation should be conducted on its interactions with other species and environmental adaptations. Ipomoea carnea has been the subject of much research, however, there are still several unknowns that prevent efficient management and comprehension of the species. These are a few of the gaps in existing knowledge:

Ø  Ecological Impact

·         Detailed Impact on Ecosystems:

Comprehensive information about Ipomoea carnea's long-term ecological effects on different ecosystems is scarce. To learn more about how it changes soil chemistry, hydrology, and interactions with other species over time, more research is required.

·         Interactions With Native Species:

It is unclear exactly how Ipomoea carnea interacts with the local flora and wildlife. It is necessary to conduct research on how it impacts seed distribution methods, pollinator networks, and competition with native plants [36].

Ø  Control Methods

·         Herbicide Efficacy and Resistance:

The potential for resistance development and the efficacy of several herbicides on Ipomoea carnea remain incompletely investigated. Control measures may be enhanced by studies that concentrate on the most effective herbicide formulations and application techniques.

·         Biological Control Agents:

Identifying safe and efficient biological control agents is still a challenging endeavour. Research is required to identify possible natural predators or pathogens that can exclusively feed on Ipomoea carnea without endangering other species.

Ø  Toxicology

·         Mechanisms Of Toxicity:

Although it is well recognized that Ipomoea carnea includes poisonous chemicals such as swainsonine, little is known about the precise biochemical pathways and mechanisms underlying the plant's toxicity in animals as well as its possible impacts on human health.

·         Variability In Toxicity:

There is insufficient information to determine whether genetic diversity or environmental variables account for the variation in toxicity levels among Ipomoea carnea communities. Comprehending this heterogeneity can aid in a more precise evaluation of the risk to humans and cattle.

Ø  Genetic Diversity

·         Genetic Diversity and Adaptation:

In-depth genomic research is required to comprehend the genetic variation within and among Ipomoea carnea populations. Understanding this information is essential to comprehending its potential for invasion and its ability to adapt to various surroundings.

·         Genomic Resources:

Establishing comprehensive genomic resources for Ipomoea carnea, like a fully sequenced genome, may offer valuable perspectives on its invasive characteristics and facilitate the identification of targets for genetic or biotechnological management strategies.

Ø  Socioeconomic Impact

·         Economic Impact Assessments:

Comprehensive economic analyses of the effects of Ipomoea carnea infestations on cattle, agriculture, and local economies are lacking. Allocating resources for management initiatives can be made easier by quantifying their effects.

·         Effectiveness Of Management Practices:

It is necessary to do long-term research on the efficacy and cost-benefit analysis of different management techniques. Comparing various integrated management techniques and their long-term viability is part of this.

Ø  Climate Change

·         Impact Of Climate Change:

Few things are known about how climate change might affect Ipomoea carnea's growth rate, distribution, and invasiveness. It is vital to do research into the potential effects and spread of changing climatic conditions.

Our capacity to control and lessen the detrimental effects of Ipomoea carnea can be greatly improved by filling in these gaps through focused study, improving ecological and human-interest protection [34,35].

Areas for Further Research of Ipomoea carnea

Ecology And Habitat: We can learn more about the ecological impact of this species by examining its preferred habitats, ecological role, and interactions with other species [36],

Toxicology: Since Ipomoea carnea is known to be hazardous to humans and livestock, more research may concentrate on determining the precise toxins involved, how they affect other creatures, and possible countermeasures or therapies [30,36].

Chemical Composition: Examining the chemical makeup of the plant's constituent parts can reveal information about its possible usefulness in industry, medicine, or other fields.

Genetic Studies: Knowledge of Ipomoea carnea's genetic composition can provide insight into its evolutionary background, genetic variety, and potential for genetic modification to improve desired features or lessen undesirable ones [30].

Invasive Potential: Examining Ipomoea carnea's capacity for invasion in various areas, as well as the elements that contribute to its spread and successful management strategies, might help mitigate its effects on local ecosystems [37].

Allelopathy: Studies on its allelopathic effects on other plant species can provide light on competitive mechanisms and possible uses in crop management or weed control [30].

Ecophysiology: Researching its physiological responses to many environmental circumstances helps clarify why it can flourish in a variety of environments and provides guidance for conservation initiatives or invasive species control plans [36,37].

Ethnobotanical Uses: Researching how indigenous groups have traditionally used Ipomoea carnea can reveal possible medical, cultural, or culinary applications as well as support the preservation of biodiversity and long-term sustainable livelihoods [36].

We can improve our understanding of Ipomoea carnea and its ecological, physiological, and socio-economic relevance by undertaking multidisciplinary studies in these areas.

Implications for Conversation and Medicinal Use of Ipomoea carnea

Ipomoea carnea conservation and medicinal purposes have related implications [36,37].

1.      Conservation: By highlighting the benefits of Ipomoea carnea's medicinal qualities, conservation efforts can be bolstered and its availability for future generations ensured. Implementing sustainable harvesting methods, keeping an eye on population trends to avoid overharvesting, and protecting the plant's native habitats are a few examples of conservation techniques.

2.      Medicinal Use: Studying Ipomoea carnea's therapeutic qualities may help create novel medications or herbal treatments. The plant's derived compounds may have anti-inflammatory, analgesic, or anti-cancer effects, among other possible medicinal uses. Its toxicity, however, necessitates caution and extensive research to determine appropriate formulations and dosages.

3.      Traditional Knowledge: Working with indigenous groups that possess traditional knowledge of Ipomoea carnea can help to guarantee that any commercialization or use of the plant for therapeutic purposes respects their intellectual property rights and cultural heritage while also facilitating ethically acceptable research.

4.      Drug Discovery: By analyzing Ipomoea carnea's chemical makeup, new substances with medicinal potential can be found. These substances have the potential to be used as lead molecules in drug discovery initiatives that aim to treat different illnesses and ailments.

5.      Pharmacological Studies: Scientists can support the therapeutic usage of Ipomoea carnea and direct clinical applications by conducting pharmacological studies to assess the safety, efficacy, and mechanisms of action of extracts or isolated components.

6.      Toxicological Assessment: Ipomoea carnea has the potential to be medicinal, but to guarantee the safety of any medicinal preparations, its toxic qualities must be carefully evaluated. Toxicokinetic and toxicodynamic studies, as well as investigations into possible side effects, are essential for risk evaluation and regulatory clearance.

Overall, sustainable use of this plant can be promoted while preserving biodiversity and traditional knowledge by combining conservation efforts with research into the medical qualities of Ipomoea carnea.

CONCLUSION

Ipomoea carnea is a plant with considerable botanical, ecological, and therapeutic significance. Its complex character calls for careful examination by a range of scientific fields. The plant's taxonomy, morphology, chemical makeup, ecological functions, therapeutic qualities, toxicological characteristics, and production methods have all been thoroughly examined in this review. Ipomoea carnea's botanical characteristics show that it is a widely distributed and adaptive plant that can grow in a variety of tropical and subtropical settings. Its chemical makeup, which is high in bioactive components, raises the possibility of therapeutic advantages but also emphasizes the need for caution because it contains some harmful substances. These chemicals are dual in nature, which emphasizes the need for thorough toxicological and pharmacological investigations to better understand how to strike a balance between safety concerns and therapeutic potential.

It is an important ecological component of many different habitats, yet managing the environment can be difficult due to its potential for invasion. The plant's interactions both positive and negative with other species exacerbate its ecological impact, making solutions for sustainable management that balance reducing the plant's invasive tendencies with maintaining its ecological contributions necessary.

Ipomoea carnea has a long history of usage in traditional medicine, and new scientific research is supporting its use. Its complete range of therapeutic uses is yet unknown, especially in contemporary settings. The plant's toxicological properties necessitate more study to guarantee safe use and a cautious approach to its use, given its effects on cattle, wildlife, and human health.

Ipomoea carnea is a reasonably straightforward plant to cultivate and conserve, although sustainable management is hampered by its invasive tendency. The imperative to safeguard ecosystems from the potential harm this species may cause must be balanced with the need to conserve it.

Several research gaps have also been found by the review, namely in the fields of ecological effect assessment, pharmaceutical validation, and sustainable management techniques. To provide a more thorough understanding of the possible advantages and disadvantages of Ipomoea carnea, future studies should try to close these gaps.

In conclusion, Ipomoea carnea is a plant of great curiosity that has a lot of potential for use in the domains of ecology and medicine. To properly comprehend and control its impact, nevertheless, a multidisciplinary approach is necessary due to its complexity. Harnessing the benefits of Ipomoea carnea while reducing its potential risks will require continued research, conservation initiatives, and careful evaluation of its medical uses.

REFERENCES

1.             Bhalerao, S. 1985. Role of Ipomoea carnea Jacq., in distributed habitats. Ph.D. thesis to the University of Mumbai.

2.             Shinners, L.H. 1970. Manual of the Vascular Plants of Texas.(Eds. Correll, D.S. and Johnston, M.C.), Texas.Renner, p.1241-61

3.             Afifi, M.S., Amer, M.M.A. and El-Khayat S.A. 1988. Macroand micro morphology of Ipomoea carnea Jacq.Growing in Egypt.Part I. Leaf and flower.Mansoura Journal of Pharmaceutical Science. 3: 41-57.

4.             Sharma, A. and Bachheti, R.K. 2013. A review on Ipomoea carnea.Int J Pharm Bio Sci., 4(4): 363 – 377.

5.             Nandkumar, P. 2011. Comparative Study between soda Lignin and soda Anthraquinone lignin in terms of Physiochemical Properties of Ipomoea carnea. International Journal of Chemical, Environmental and Pharmaceutical Research.2(1) 26 – 29.

6.             Shrivastava, D. &Shukla, K. 2015. Pharmaceutical efficacy of Ipomoea carnea.Biological Forum – An International Journal. 7(1): 225-235.

7.             Miranda, M.A., Dhandapani, P., Kalavathy, M.H. and Miranda, L.R. 2012. Activated Ipomoea carnea a biosorbent for the copper sorption from aqueous solution.

8.             Deshmukh, H.V. 2012. Economic Feasibility and Pollution Abetment Study of biogas Production Process utilizing Admixture of Ipomoea carnea and Distillery Waste, Journal of Environmental Research and Development. 7(2): 222-23.

9.             Moindi, J., Onyambu, E., Kiprono, S. J., Titus, S. K. and Onyancha, W. 2012. Studies of Biodegradation of Ipomoea carnea Weed from Kavinadu Big Tank in Pudukkottai District (India) Journal of Natural Sciences Research. Vol. 2, No.6.

10.         Sahayaraj, K. and Ravi, C. (2008). Preliminary phytochemistry of Ipomea carnea jacq. and Vitex negundo Linn. Leaves. Int. J. Chem. Sci. 6(1): 1-6.

11.         Basumatary, K.K. & Acharya S.K. (2013). Investigation into mechanical properties of Ipomoea carnea reinforced epoxy composite. International Journal of Macromolecular Science. 3(3): 11-15.

12.         Agnello, X., Naveen, J.,Deepa, C.,Kavitha, K.K. & Jegadeesan, M. (2013). Study on biopesticidal activity of Ipomoea carnea, Jatropha curcas and Calotropis gigantean against leaf folder (Cnaphalocrosis medinalis). Int. J. Pharm. Bio. Sci. 3(3): 135-146.

13.         Austin DF. Ipomoea carnea fistulosa (Mart. Ex choisy), India biodiversity.org/speies/show/263090. 31. Ipomoea batatilla (Kunth) G. Don: useful plants of Boyaca, Kewscience/Taxon/urn: Isid: ipui: org: names: 268478-1.

14.         Ipomoea crassicualis (Benth) BL. Rob. [family Convolvulaceae] (stored under name) Convolvulus longifolius subsp.

15.         Kiran BR, Parisara N. A review on the importance of Ipomoea carnea. International Journal of Engineering and Modern Education (IJERME) ISSN (online): 2445- 4200. 2016;1(1).

16.         Shaltout KH, Al-Sodany YM, Eid EM. The biology of Egyptian woody perennials-2. Ipomoea carnea Jacq. Assiut University Buletin for Environmental Researches 2006, 75-91.

17.         Cook CDK. Ipomoea fistulosa: A new problem for India. Aquaphyte J 1987;7(1):12.

18.         Kumar, A., Manral, U., Sharma, S. (2014). Traditional remedy for Muscle Strain Using Ipomoea carnea Jacq. and Ricinus communis L. leaves in Haryana, India. International Journal of Medicinal Plants, 108, 625-631.

19.         Sahayaraj, K., Kombiah, P., Dikshit, A. K., Rathi, M. (2015). Chemical constituents of the essential oils of Tephrosia purpurea and Ipomoea carnea and their repellent activity against Odoiporus longicollis. Journal of Serb. Chem. Soc, 80(4), 465-473.

20.         Balogh, D., Dimande, A.P., Lugt, V.D, Molyneux, J.R., Naude, T.W., Welman, W.G. (1999). Lysosomal storage disease induced by Ipomoea carnea in goats in Mozambique. Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation, 11, 266-273.

21.         Mungole, A.J., Awati, R., Chaturvedi, A., Zanwar, P. (2010). Preliminary phytochemical of Ipomoea obscura (L)- A hepatoprotective medicinal plant. International Journal of pharm tech research, 2(4), 2307-4304.

22.         Tirkey K, Yadava RP, Mandal TK, Banerjee NL. The pharmacology of Ipomoea carnea. Ind. Vetn. J 1998;65:206-210.

23.         Meira M, Silva EPde, David JM, David JP. Review of the genus Ipomoea: traditional uses, chemistry and biological activities. Braz. J Pharmacog 2012;22:682-713.

24.         Dutt D, Upadhyaya D, Malik JSRS, Tyagi CH. Studies on the pulp and papermaking characteristics of some Indian non- woody fibrous raw materials. Cellulose Chemistry & Technology 2005;39(1-2):115-128.

25.         Hosomi RZ, DeSouza H, Gorniak SL, Habr SF, Penteado SW, Varoli FMF, et al. Embryotoxic effects of prenatal treatment with Ipomoea carnea aqueous fraction in rats. Braz. J Vet. Res. Anim. Sci 2008;45(1):67-75.

26.         Armien AG, Tokarnia CH, Vargas PP, Frese K. Spontaneous and experimental glycoprotein storage disease of goats induced by Ipomoea carnea subsp fistulosa (Convolvulaceae). Vet. Pathol 2013;44:170-184.

27.         Bachhav KV, Burande MD, Rangari VD, Mehta JK. Effect of aqueous extract of Ipomoea carnea leaf on isolated frog and mouse heart. Ind. J Exp. Biol. 1999;37(11):1080-1084.

28.         Ehattacharya SK, Ray A, Dasgupta B. Central Nervous System depressant activity of Ipomoea carnea Jacq. Indian J Pharmac 1975;7:31-34.

29.         Rout SK, Kar DM. Sedative, anxiolytic and anticonvulsant effects of different extracts from the leaves of Ipomoea carnea in experimental animals. Int. J Drug Dev. Res 2013;5(2):232-243.

30.         Bidkar JS, Bhujbal MD, Ghanwat DD, Dama GY. Anxiolytic activity of aqueous and methanolic extracts of Ipomoea carnea leaves. Int. J Universal Pharm. Bio Sci 2012;1(2):1-11.

31.         Ambiga S, Narayanan R, Gowri D, Sukumar D, Madhavan S. Evaluation of wound healing activity of flavonoids from Ipomoea carnea Jacq. Anc. Sci. Life 2007;26(3):45-51.

32.         Adsul, V.B., Khatiwora, E. andDeshpande, N.R., 2012. Evaluation of Antioxidant activity of Ipomoea carnea leaves. J. Nat. Prod. Plant Resour.2(5): 584-588.

33.         Phillips, O.L, Gentry, AH, Reynal, L, Wilkin, P, Gulvez, D.C.B. (1994). Quantitative Ethnobotany & Amazonian Conservation. Conservation Bio., 8, 225- 248.

34.         Kadiyawala, A.L.A., Prasad, A.K., Kumar, S., Iyer, S. V., Patel, H. A. & Patel, J.A. (2012). Comparative Antidiabetic Studies of Leaves of Ipomoea carnea and Grewia asiatica on Streptozotocin Induced Diabetic Rats. International Journal of Pharmaceutical & Biological Archives, 3(4), 853-857.

35.         Chowdhury AKA, Ali MS, Khan MOF. Antimicrobial activity of Ipomoea fistulosa extractives. Fitoterapia 1997;68(4):379-380.

36.         I.M. Hueza, E.S.M. Fonseca, C.A. Paulino, M. Haraguchi and S.L. Gorniak “Evaluation of immunomodulatory activity of Ipomoea carnea on peritoneal cells of rats.” J.Enthopharmacology, May, 2003.

37.         Agarwal. R. K. ; Uppadhay, R.K “Antimicrobial activity of metal complexes prepared from the leaf proteins of I. carnea Jacq.” Indian Drugs Phar.Ind., 14(2) 23-