Pharmacological Properties of Amomum subulatum Roxb., a Significant Medicinal Herb

Pushpendra Ahirwar¹, Ishrat Jahan², Mehuli Som³, Ajay Chaudhary⁴, Pooja Lodhi⁵ and Divaker Shukla⁶*.

 

^1.        Assistant Professor, Department of  Pharmacognosy, Gyan Ganga Institute of Technology and Science, Jabalpur-482003, Madhya Pradesh, India

^2.        Assistant Professor, Department of Pharmacology , Sahara Degree College, Rampur-243701, Uttar Pradesh, India

^3.        Research Scholar, Department of Pharmacology, Baddi University of Emerging Science and Technology, Makhnumajra, Baddi, Solon-173205, Himachal Pradesh, India

^4.        Research Scholar, Department of Pharmacology, Baddi University of Emerging Science and Technology, Makhnumajra, Baddi, Solon-173205, Himachal Pradesh, India

^5.        Research Scholar, Gyan Ganga Institute of Technology and Science, Jabalpur-482003, Madhya Pradesh, India

^6.        Professor, Faculty of Pharmacy, Pharmacy Academy, IFTM University, Lodhipur Rajput, Pakbara, Delhi Road, Moradabad-244102, Uttar Pradesh, India

 

*Correspondence: divakershukla983@gmail.com

DOI: https://doi.org/10.71431/IJRPAS.2026.5301   

Article Information		Abstract
Research Article Received: 25/01/2026 Revised : 07/02/2026 Accepted: 25/03/2026 Published:31/03/2026   Keywords Amomum subulatum Roxb, Antioxidant, Anti-inflammatory, Antimicrobial,  Hypolipidemic and  Pharmacological Significance.		Amomum subulatum Roxb., often known as dark cardamom, is a medicinal plant native to the Tibetan region that is extensively utilized in traditional Chinese and Ayurvedic medicine systems. Its pharmacological significance is derived from its several bioactive components, which support a range of therapeutic activities. The mechanisms of action and possible health advantages of the plant's main bioactive constituents, such as essential oils, flavonoids, and alkaloids, are examined. Pharmacological investigations reveal that Amomum subulatum exhibits a broad spectrum of biological activities, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, analgesic, antiulcer, hypolipidemic, and cardioprotective properties. Its strong antioxidant potential is associated with scavenging of reactive oxygen species and inhibition of lipid peroxidation, thereby protecting tissues from oxidative stress and inflammation.. Additionally, the review emphasizes the medicinal uses of black cardamom in the treatment of respiratory problems, metabolic abnormalities, and gastrointestinal issues. Despite the plant's encouraging pharmacological profile, the article also highlights shortcomings in the clinical validation and standardization of Amomum subulatum's therapeutic uses. Ultimately, this review provides a comprehensive overview of Amomum subulatum as a helpful medicinal plant, emphasizing the need for further research to fully elucidate its therapeutic potential and enable its integration into modern pharmacology.

 

INTRODUCTION   

Amomum subulatum Roxb., belonging to the family Zingiberaceae, is commonly known as large or black cardamom is a perennial rhizomatous herb. The drug consists of the dried ripe fruits (capsules). It is widely cultivated in the sub-Himalayan regions, particularly in India, Nepal, and Bhutan, and holds significant economic and medicinal value. Traditionally, the dried fruits (capsules) of the plant have been used not only as a spice but also as a therapeutic agent in various indigenous systems of medicine such as Ayurveda and traditional Chinese medicine ¹,². The plant is well adapted to the moist, shaded environments of sub-Himalayan regions and thrives at elevations ranging from 600 to 2000 meters ^3,4.

It is native to the Eastern Himalayas, specifically the states of India, Nepal, and Bhutan. Sri Lanka is also inhabited by it. The top three producers are Bhutan (11%), India (37%) and Nepal (52%) ^5,6.  The plant has long been recognized for its role in managing a variety of ailments, including respiratory disorders (such as asthma and bronchitis), gastrointestinal disturbances, cardiovascular conditions, and infections. Its therapeutic potential is largely attributed to the presence of diverse phytochemicals, including essential oils, flavonoids, phenolic compounds, and terpenoids. Among these, compounds like 1,8-cineole, cardamonin, and alpinetin are considered key contributors to its biological activities^.7,8. In Ayurveda & Unani medicine, great cardamom has been used to treat conditions like gastrointestinal problems, genitourinary complaints, liver blockage, loose bowels, indigestion, vomiting, and rectal infections^,9,10. In South Asia, it is mostly used as an astringent, diuretic, stomachic, carminative, aromatic stimulant, and anti-inflammatory. Its rind has been utilized to treat stomatitis and headache ⁷. Adding black cardamom to your diet helps improve your metabolic health. Black cardamom aids in improving the liver's performance.¹¹ In recent years, there has been growing scientific interest in validating the traditional uses of A. subulatum through pharmacological and phytochemical studies. Research has demonstrated that the plant exhibits multiple bioactivities, such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, anticancer, and cardioprotective effects. These findings suggest its potential as a valuable sources⁸. The traditional process uses a locally constructed wood-fired curing hut to collect and cure (heap) the cobs before stripping^13,14. Nonetheless, some improved techniques have been proposed to preserve the quality of the output¹⁵. Initially picked pods have a dark red color, after that the fruits turned dark brown after being dried using the conventional smoking procedure. Once a month, the mature fruits are harvested from the plant. Over the next 6-10 years, the yield keeps rising before leveling out¹⁶.

The capsules, which were kept in a humid environment and packed in an unlined high-density polyethylene (HDPT) woven sack made of polypropylene (PP), ethylene terephthalate/polyethylene (PET/PE), and high moisture pick-up. There was a noticeable decrease in volatile oil in the unlined woven sack when it was dry. Under typical storage conditions, there was a slight change in the moisture and volatile oil content of capsules packed in PP and PET/PE. The main flavor constituent 1,8 cineol, which is made up of aromatic oil, was also retained at a rate between 93.9 and 97.4%. During 240 days of normal storage, seeds packaged in PET glass, HDPE, jar as well as foil coating showed a loss of aromatic oil, and their moisture level was within the uppermost allowable limit^17,18.

Figure 1:Plant of Amomum subulatum with Seed Pods

Scientific Classification of Amomum subulatum Roxb.:¹²

Kingdom: Plantae

Subkingdom: Tracheobionta (Vascular plants)

Superdivision: Spermatophyta (Seed plants)

Division: Magnoliophyta (Angiosperms)

Class: Liliopsida (Monocotyledons)

Subclass: Zingiberidae

Order: Zingiberales

Family: Zingiberaceae

Genus: Amomum

Species: Amomum subulatum Roxb.

Other Properties:²⁰

Flavour: Because of Aromatic Compound 1,8 Cineole

                                                                   Figure 2: 1,8 Cineole

Pleasant Aroma: Terpinyl acetate

Figure 3: Terpinyl acetate

Chemical Constituents of Amomum subulatum Roxb.: Amomum subulatum Roxb. (black cardamom) is rich in a variety of bioactive phytochemicals that contribute to its medicinal and pharmacological properties. These constituents are mainly present in its seeds and essential oil^20,21.

Essential Oils: The seeds contain volatile oils (2–4%), which are primarily responsible for the plant’s aroma and therapeutic effects. Major components include: 1,8-Cineole (Eucalyptol)  Main constituent with expectorant and antimicrobial properties such as Sabinene, Limonene, α-Pinene and β-Pinene, Terpineol and Geraniol.

Flavonoids and Phenolic Compounds: These compounds contribute to antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities such as Cardamonin, Alpinetin, and Quercetin and Kaempferol.

Terpenoids: Terpenoids play a role in antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory effects: Monoterpenes and Sesquiterpenes.

Alkaloids: Present in smaller quantities, alkaloids contribute to various pharmacological activities such as analgesic and antimicrobial effects.

Tannins: Tannins provide astringent properties and contribute to antimicrobial and anti-diarrheal effects.

Glycosides and Carbohydrates: These compounds support general metabolic and therapeutic functions.

 Fixed Oils and Lipids: Small amounts of fatty acids and fixed oils are also present, contributing to nutritional value.

Other Constituents: Proteins and amino acids, Minerals (such as calcium, potassium, and magnesium) and Starch and fibers.

Chemical tests of different A. subulatum extracts revealed the presence of alkaloids, fixed oil, lipids and Carbohydrates, flavonoids, amino acids, steroids, triterpenoids, glycosides, anthocyanins, tannins, aurone, and flavanone^19,20. Limonene (10.3%) and 1,8 Cineole (65–80%) are the primary chemical components of large cardamom essential oil ^21,22. Monoterpene hydrocarbons range in concentration from 5 to 17%, with pipinenes, terpinenes, limonene, and sabeinene being significant components^23,24. Terpinols make up between five and seven percent of the oil. When compared to genuine cardamom, this spice's potent scent is probably caused by its high cineole and low terpenyl acetate content^25,26.It is shown in table 1.

Macroscopic Study of Amomum subulatum:

Macroscopically, the fruits are large, ovoid to oblong in shape, measuring about 2-4 cm in length and 1-2 cm in width. The outer surface is dark brown to black, rough, and shows prominent longitudinal ridges and wrinkles. The fruit is typically three-sided (trilocular) due to the presence of three chambers inside. The pericarp is hard and tough, enclosing numerous small seeds. On breaking the fruit, it is seen that the seeds are dark brown, angular, and arranged in three compartments. Each seed is covered with a thin membranous layer. The drug possesses a characteristic strong aromatic and smoky odour, which develops during the drying process. The taste is aromatic, pungent, and slightly bitter. A persistent calyx is often present at the apex of the fruit, which serves as an additional identifying feature. Thus, Amomum subulatum can be identified macroscopically by its large size, dark wrinkled capsule, trilocular structure, numerous seeds, and characteristic smoky aroma.

Morphologically, the plant possesses a robust underground rhizome that gives rise to leafy shoots. The aerial stems (pseudostems) are formed by overlapping leaf sheaths and can grow up to 1.5–2.5 meters in height. The leaves are simple, lanceolate, and elongated, measuring approximately 30–60 cm in length, with an acuminate apex and entire margins. They are arranged alternately and exhibit a characteristic aromatic fragrance when crushed. The inflorescence arises directly from the rhizome at ground level, forming a dense, spike-like structure. Flowers are bisexual, zygomorphic, and typically pale yellow to white, often marked with purple or red streaks on the labellum. The flowering period generally occurs from April to June, depending on climatic conditions. The fruit is a trilocular capsule, which is the economically important part of the plant. It is oval to oblong in shape, dark brown to black in color, and contains numerous small, aromatic seeds embedded in a sticky pulp. These seeds are highly valued for their strong flavor and medicinal properties ¹⁵.

Amomum subulatum fruits are uneven and dentate-undulate, extending two-thirds of their length from the apex to the base. These wings are flattened anteriorly and posteriorly ⁶ The ripe fruit has dark pink seed capsules and is trilocular and reddish brown. Capsules are dark red-brown, echinate, irregular, trilocular, oval to globular, and 20–25 mm long. A sticky, sweet pulp holds numerous aromatic seeds together in each cell.¹³ The leaves are lanceolate & oblong, measuring 30 to 60 cm in length, and they are green and glabrous on both sides. Long, sheath-like stalks encircling one another form leafy stems. There are globose, thick spikes with short peduncles. The segments of the calyx and corolla tubes are sub obtuse in shape, shorter than the tube, and cuspidate in the top part. The lip is yellowish white, oblong-cuneate, emarginated, and a little longer than the corolla segments. With a few upright green shoots and panicles, rhizomes are branching and creeping. Its buds are encased in tight crimson bracts, and its peduncle is short. ¹⁵ The stem is 90–120 cm long. Flowering mostly takes place in the spring. Each blossom remains open for at least three days. New blooms begin to open at the same moment in succession. The inflorescence lasted more than a month in bloom.¹⁵

Microscopic Study of Amomum subulatum:

The studied microscopically by examining the transverse section of the fruit and seed. The pericarp is differentiated into three distinct layers: epicarp, mesocarp, and endocarp. The epicarp consists of a single layer of thick-walled epidermal cells covered with a cuticle. The mesocarp is composed of parenchymatous cells containing starch grains and oil globules, along with scattered vascular bundles. Characteristic oleoresin (oil) cells are present in this region. The endocarp forms the inner layer and is made up of thin-walled cells. The seed shows a well-developed structure¹⁷. The testa (seed coat) consists of thick-walled, lignified cells, often pigmented. Beneath the testa lies the perisperm, which is composed of thin-walled parenchymatous cells filled with abundant starch grains. The endosperm contains aleurone grains and fixed oil, and its cells are compact. The embryo is small and situated at one end of the seed. Thus, the important microscopic diagnostic features of Amomum subulatum include a differentiated pericarp with oil cells, lignified seed coat, and a starch-rich perisperm with aleurone-containing endosperm cells, which aid in its identification. These cells also contain calcium oxalate rosettes, which are usually between 12.9 and 17.20µ in diameter. This tissue can also infrequently include prismatic crystals. The endosperm comes after the perisperm and has parenchymatous cells that are usually eight to ten layers thick and pale yellow in color. The embryo, which has thin walls, is roughly isodiametric, and is well supplied with food reserves, is found inside the endosperm. The range of its diameter is 17.20 to 43.00 to 51.60µ¹⁸.

Powder Microscopy of Amomum subulatum:

The powdered drug of Amomum subulatum was studied to identify its characteristic microscopic features. The powder is dark brown in colour and shows a number of diagnostic elements under the microscope. Fragments of the epicarp are seen as cells with thick walls and cuticle. The mesocarp appears as parenchymatous cells containing starch grains and oil globules, along with characteristic oleoresin cells. The powder shows numerous starch grains, which are simple, round to oval in shape, and abundant in the perisperm. Aleurone grains are also present in the endosperm. Fragments of the seed coat (testa) are observed as thick-walled, lignified, and pigmented cells. These cells are an important identifying feature.In addition, fibres and vascular elements such as xylem vessels with thickened walls were present. Occasional trichomes (hair-like structures) also were present¹⁹.

Physicochemical Characteristics of Amomum subulatum:

Amomum subulatum Roxb's identification, purity, and quality are assessed using a variety of physicochemical metrics. The drug's inorganic content is evaluated using the ash values. Typically, the drug's total ash content is between 8 and 10%, and its acid-insoluble ash content is between 2 and 3%, indicating the presence of earthy materials and silica. The water-soluble ash, which represents water-soluble inorganic salts, is found to be between 3 and 5%. The extractive values are used to assess the quantity of active ingredients. The presence of volatile oils, resins, and flavonoids is often indicated by an alcohol-soluble extractive value of 10–15%, while polar elements such as sugars and glycosides are suggested by a water-soluble extractive value of roughly 15–20% ²⁰. The moisture content (loss on drying), which is usually limited to 10–12%, is an important aspect that helps prevent microbial proliferation and medication degradation. Amomum subulatum's unique aroma and therapeutic properties are enhanced by its volatile oil content, which is at least 2-4% v/w. Since there are just 1% to 2% of foreign organic elements in the medication, it is often pure and clean. The crude fiber content, which ranges from 10% to 20%, represents the indigestible fibrous substance²¹,²² .

Pharmacological Properties of Amomum subulatum:

Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, analgesic, antiulcer, hypolipidemic, and cardioprotective qualities are among the many pharmacological properties of Amomum subulatum that have been investigated ^36,37. Its volatile oils, flavonoids, and phenolic substances are primarily responsible for these effects. As such, it has great potential for therapeutic uses in respiratory, metabolic, and gastrointestinal problems ^{24, 25}. The mechanisms summary of bioactive compounds of Amomum subulatum shown in table 2

Table 2: Mechanisms Summary of Bioactive Compounds:

Sr. No.	Effect	Bioactive Compounds	Mechanism
1.	Digestive aid	Cineole, terpenoids	Stimulates enzyme secretion, gut motility
2.	Antimicrobial	Cineole, limonene	Disrupts microbial membranes
3.	Anti-inflammatory	Flavonoids, Terpenoids	Inhibits COX, NF-κB, cytokines
4.	Antioxidant	Phenolics, flavonoids	Free radical scavenging, enhances SOD/catalase
5.	Cardiovascular	Flavonoids	Vasodilation, lipid peroxidation reduction
6.	Respiratory	Essential oils	Expectorant, bronchodilator
7.	Hepatoprotective	Phenolics, flavonoids	Reduces oxidative stress in liver
8.	Antidiabetic	Alkaloids, terpenoids	Enhances insulin and glucose uptake

 

Antioxidant properties: Amomum subulatum has strong antioxidant properties due to its phenolics, flavonoids, and volatile oils ^26,36.

Mechanisms of Antioxidant Action:

1.      Free Radical Scavenging: Neutralizes reactive oxygen species (ROS) such as superoxide and hydroxyl radicals.

2.      Inhibition of Lipid Peroxidation: Prevents oxidative damage to cell membranes.

3.      Metal Chelation: Binds transition metals like iron and copper, reducing free radical formation.

4.      Enhancement of Endogenous Antioxidant Enzymes: Stimulates superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase, and glutathione peroxidase, strengthening the body’s natural defense system.

Therapeutic Significance:

1.      Reduces oxidative stress in the liver, heart, and other tissues.

2.      Prevents aging-related and inflammatory disorders.

3.      Supports cardioprotective and hepatoprotective effects.

Anti-inflammatory activity: Amomum subulatum (black cardamom) exhibits significant anti-inflammatory activity, which contributes to its therapeutic use in conditions like arthritis, gastrointestinal inflammation, and respiratory disorders ³⁷.

Mechanisms of Anti-inflammatory Action:

1.      Inhibition of Pro-inflammatory Mediators: Suppresses the production of prostaglandins, leukotrienes, and cytokines that trigger inflammation.

2.      Modulation of Enzyme Activity: Inhibits enzymes such as cyclooxygenase (COX) and lipoxygenase (LOX) that play key roles in inflammatory pathways.

1. Antioxidant-Mediated Anti-inflammation: Its phenolics, flavonoids, and volatile oils reduce oxidative stress, which is closely linked to inflammation.
2. Membrane Stabilization: Protects cell membranes from inflammatory damage, preventing leakage of inflammatory mediators.

Therapeutic Significance:

1.      Reduces inflammation in joints, gastrointestinal tract, and respiratory tissues.

2.      Provides relief from pain and swelling associated with chronic inflammatory conditions.

3.       Supports overall tissue protection and accelerates healing

Antimicrobial activity: It useful in traditional medicine for preventing and treating infections. Its activity is mainly attributed to volatile oils, phenolic compounds, and tannins in Amomum subulatum^{28, 39}.

Mechanisms of Antimicrobial Action:

1.      Disruption of Microbial Cell Membranes: Volatile oils (e.g., cineole, α-terpineol) penetrate bacterial and fungal cell walls, causing leakage of cellular contents.

1. Inhibition of Microbial Metabolism: Phenolic compounds interfere with enzyme activity and energy production in microbes.
2. Protein Denaturation:Tannins and other phytochemicals can precipitate microbial proteins, reducing their viability.

Therapeutic Significance:

1.      Active against bacteria such as Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and Salmonella species.

2.      Effective against fungi like Candida albicans.

3.      Helps in preventing gastrointestinal and respiratory infections.

4.      Supports wound healing and hygiene due to its antimicrobial properties.

Analgesic activity: Amomum subulatum exhibits analgesic (pain-relieving) properties, which contribute to its traditional use in alleviating muscle pain, joint pain, and headaches⁴⁰. The analgesic effects are primarily attributed to its volatile oils, flavonoids, and saponins.

 

 

Mechanisms of Analgesic Action:

1.      Inhibition of Pain Mediators: Suppresses the synthesis of prostaglandins and other inflammatory mediators that sensitize nerve endings.

2.      Modulation of the Central Nervous System: Some constituents may influence pain perception by acting on the central nervous system.

3.      Anti-inflammatory Contribution: By reducing inflammation in tissues, it indirectly reduces pain caused by inflammatory processes.

Therapeutic Significance:

1.      Provides relief from arthritic pain, muscular aches, and gastrointestinal discomfort.

1. Enhances patient comfort in inflammatory and degenerative disorders.
2. Supports the use of Amomum subulatum as a natural analgesic agent in traditional medicine.

Antiulcer activity: Black cardamom exhibits antiulcer properties, making it useful in the prevention and treatment of gastric and duodenal ulcers. These effects are mainly attributed to its volatile oils, flavonoids, and phenolic compounds, which protect the gastrointestinal mucosa ³⁸.

Mechanisms of Antiulcer Action:

1. Enhancement of Gastric Mucosal Defense: Stimulates secretion of mucus and bicarbonate, protecting the stomach lining from acid-induced injury.
2. Reduction of Gastric Acid Secretion: Certain phytochemicals help modulate acid production, preventing hyperacidity.
3. Antioxidant Activity: Neutralizes reactive oxygen species (ROS) that contribute to mucosal damage and ulcer formation.
4. Anti-inflammatory Effect: Reduces inflammation in the gastric mucosa, promoting healing of ulcerated tissues.

Therapeutic Significance:

1.      Prevents and heals gastric and duodenal ulcers.

1. Reduces acid-related gastrointestinal discomfort.
2. Supports gastrointestinal health by protecting the mucosa and reducing oxidative stress.

 Hypolipidemic activity: Black cardamom exhibits hypolipidemic (lipid-lowering) activity, which contributes to cardiovascular protection and prevention of atherosclerosis^{30, 42}. This activity is primarily attributed to its flavonoids, phenolic compounds, and volatile oils.

Mechanisms of Hypolipidemic Action:

1.      Reduction of Serum Lipid Levels: Decreases total cholesterol, triglycerides, and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) levels in the blood.

1. Increase of High-Density Lipoprotein (HDL): Promotes the level of HDL “good cholesterol”, which aids in reverse cholesterol transport.
2. Inhibition of Lipid Peroxidation: Antioxidant compounds prevent oxidative modification of lipids, particularly LDL, reducing the risk of plaque formation in arteries.
3. Enhancement of Lipid Metabolism: Stimulates enzymes involved in lipid breakdown and reduces lipid accumulation in tissues.

Therapeutic Significance: Supports cardiovascular health by reducing cholesterol and triglycerides.

1.      Prevents atherosclerosis and related complications.

1. Acts as a natural lipid-lowering agent in hyperlipidemic conditions.

Cardioprotective properties: Black cardamom exhibits cardioprotective activity, helping to maintain heart health and prevent cardiovascular diseases ⁴¹. Its effects are primarily attributed to antioxidants, flavonoids, phenolic compounds, and volatile oils.

Mechanisms of Cardioprotective Action:

1.      Reduction of Oxidative Stress: Antioxidant compounds neutralize reactive oxygen species (ROS) that can damage heart tissues.

1. Lipid-Lowering Effect: Reduces total cholesterol, triglycerides, and LDL, while increasing HDL levels, preventing atherosclerosis.
2. Anti-inflammatory Action: Reduces inflammation in blood vessels, which lowers the risk of endothelial dysfunction and plaque formation.
3. Improvement of Endothelial Function: Enhances vasodilation and blood flow, supporting normal blood pressure and heart function.

Therapeutic Significance:

1.      Protects against myocardial injury and oxidative damage.

1. Prevents atherosclerosis and coronary artery diseases.
2. Supports overall cardiovascular health, making it beneficial in hyperlipidemia and oxidative stress-related heart disorders.

CONCLUSION:

A significant medicinal plant with a broad range of pharmacological actions is Amomum subulatum Roxb. The presence of bioactive substances such volatile oils, flavonoids, and phenolic ingredients is primarily responsible for its medicinal potential. It has strong antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, analgesic, antiulcer, hypolipidemic, and cardioprotective qualities, all of which add to its efficacy in treating a number of illnesses. Reducing oxidative stress and boosting overall protective effects are important functions of antioxidant activity. Therefore, Amomum subulatum can be regarded as a useful natural therapy with potential uses in the treatment and prevention of inflammatory, cardiovascular, and gastrointestinal conditions.

 

 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS:

The authors express their sincere gratitude to all individuals and institutions who contributed to the successful completion of this work. We are especially thankful to the academic and research staff whose guidance, expertise, and constructive feedback greatly enhanced the quality of this study.

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