Dragon Fruit (Hylocereus undatus)Peel: Powerful Source of Nutrition and Health

Hiten Khattar, Shabnam Ain*¹, Qurratul Ain¹, Himani Bansal¹, Mohd Uzair¹, Chhaya Rathore Sahu², Ajeet¹, Al Alexis Ain¹ & Cutee¹

1. Sanskar College of Pharmacy and Research, Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh

2. Rajiv Gandhi College of Pharmacy, Nautanwa, Maharajganj, Uttar Pradesh

*Correspondence: shabnam.ain@sanskar.org;

DOI: https://doi.org/10.71431/IJRPAS.2026.5404

INTRODUCTION

Pitaya, also known as strawberry pear or dragon fruit, is a unique cactus fruit. This fruit is native to Central and South America [2]. This fruit is very popular because of its striking colours and various

health benefits. The fruit is beneficial, and its peel also contains various nutritional characteristics. It is a red or pink-skinned fruit covered with scales, with white or red flesh and small black seeds [2]. The taste of dragon fruit is mildly sweet, but it is rich in vitamin C and has antioxidant properties [2]. It has a high fibre and low-calorie content, making it suitable for fruit consumption during weight loss. This fruit is native to Mexico and North America but now is cultivated nearly everywhere on earth, with the highest production in Southeast Asia and other tropical and subtropical regions [2]. 

Dragon fruit peel is often regarded as waste and discarded, which may further contribute to the production of harmful greenhouse gases and damage the soil, thereby providing favourable conditions for bacterial growth and the development of harmful diseases [1]. Countries such as Vietnam, which lead in dragon fruit production, produce over a million metric tons of dragon fruit peel waste annually and discard approximately 220,000 tons of peels [6]. Researchers can use this waste produced by dragon fruit peels because it is rich in valuable compounds that offer several health benefits, and because the demand for such organic products grows daily because of their effectiveness and low side effects [1]. The extraction of bioactive materials yields economic benefits. 

The dragon fruit peel contributes to almost 22-44% of the fruit weight [1]. The main compounds found in dragon fruit peel are betalains, anthocyanins, flavonoids, phenolic compounds, pectin, and dietary fibre, which are known for their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and anticancer properties [3]. This review article focuses on the chemical components of dragon fruit peel, their important functions and uses, and future research directions on the peel.

Botanical information

There are many species of Dragon Fruit based on their flesh and skin. Among all pink peel dragon fruit, the most common is the one containing white flesh. Dragon fruit is often referred to as pitaya. It was once called the genus Hylocereus, but recent phylogenetic research has transferred these species to the genus Selenicereus. The table 1 shows the botanical info for the different dragon fruit species.

Table 1: Different dragon fruit species with their descriptive features

Taxonomy of dragon fruit

o   Kingdom: Plantae

o   Division: Spermatophyta

o   Class: Dicotyledonae

o   Family: Cactaceae

o   Genus: Selenicereus (Formerly – Hylocereus)

o   Species: Selenicereus Udantus, Selenicereus Costaricensis, Selenicereus Megalanthus

           Figure 1: Different species of dragon fruit

Plant description

Catia or dragon fruit is a cactus plant that belongs to the cactus family (Cactaceae). Dragon fruit, being a climbing or aerial plant, requires support from another plant or object to grow. The Primary stem of the plant is dense and moist and exhibiting a triangular geometry. As a cactus species, the dragon fruit stem holds up the essential nutrients and water needed by the plant to grow in harsh or extreme weather, such as low humidity and infertile soil. The flowers of the plant are deep greenish yellow or pale white in colour and have an aromatic smell. The length of the flower is approximately 20-35 cm, and its thickness is approximately 22-35 [4].

PEEL OF DRAGON FRUIT

Dragon fruit contains various compounds, such as betalains, pectin, phenolic compounds, flavonoids, and dietary fibres. The compounds have their own functions, such as betalains and anthocyanins, which are responsible for the antioxidant properties and the red colour of the fruit; pectin and dietary fibres are responsible for treating gut health and texture of the fruit; phenolic compounds and flavonoids are responsible for the anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial effects; and various polysaccharides are also responsible for the antioxidant properties and metabolic regulation in the body [5].

Betalains (betacyanins)

Betalains are tyrosine-derived pigments mainly found in plants of the genus Caryophyllales. Betalains are water-soluble, similar to anthocyanins, and are found in vacuoles of plant cells. Betalains are water-soluble, like anthocyanins, and exist in vacuoles. The word betalains is derived from the Latin name of beetroot, that is Beta Vulgaris, through which the Betalains were extracted for the first time. Betalains is responsible for the reddish-pink colour of the fruit or flowers of plants. Basically, the Betalains are classified into two categories [7] i.e. Betacyanins and Betaxanthins. The colour of dragon fruit is primarily due to betalains, which are also natural colouring agents in the food industry. Betalains are closely related to anthocyanins, except that they are not found in all angiosperms but only in subdivisions of Caryophytes and in isolated genera of Basidiomycota. Dragon fruit is regarded as the third richest source of Betalains after the Beta vulgaris and Amaranthus species. In dragon fruit, the two categories of betalains have their own characteristics, as betacyanins are responsible for the red-violet colour. In contrast, the betaxanthins are responsible for the yellow-orange colour [1]. It has been found that betalain content is higher in the peel than in the pulp; hence, the peel, or waste, has more betalain content than the original fruit. Table 2 shows the betalain content of various dragon fruit species reported in the literature. Based on these observations, it can be concluded that the betalain content is higher in dragon fruit than in Beta vulgaris [1].

Table 2: Betalain (betacyanins) content in different dragon fruit species.

The betalain content of H. polyrhizus and H. undatus was similar. They contain various compounds like betanin, phyllocactin, isobetanin and isophyllocactin, whereas in the Beta vulgaris, in which betanin and isobetanin are found in abundance [1].

The chemistry of betalains can be understood as Betalains were first isolated and their chemical structures were discovered in 1960 by Dr. Tom Mabry at the University of Zurich. Betalains and anthocyanins are similar but chemically and structurally different and cannot be discovered in a single plant. Betalains contain nitrogen in their structure, whereas anthocyanins do not contain the nitrogen [7]. Tyrosine serves as the precursor for the betalains which are indole derivatives. The most common betalains are betanin, a glucoside that yields glucose and betanidin upon hydrolysis [7]. Betalains are pigments containing a nitrogen molecule and have a core structure of betalamic acid. The liquefication of betalamic acid with cyclo-DOPA results in the formation of betacyanins, and condensation with amino acids and their derivatives leads to the formation of the second category of betalains, betaxanthins. Until 1957, betalains were considered nitrogenous anthocyanins; however, their crystallization, hydrolysis, and other reactions demonstrated that they are distinct [8].

Biosynthesis of betalains: There are two enzymes responsible for the biosynthesis of betalains: bifunctional cytochrome P450 enzymes CYP76AD1, and (2) 4,5- DOPA dioxygenase (DODA). In the first step, tyrosine is hydroxylated to L-DOPA by CYP76AD1. In the second step, the cyclization of DODA takes place. Betalamic acid condenses with cyclo-DOPA and amine, cyclo-DOPA’s glucosyl derivatives, forming betacyanins and betaxanthins [9].

Figure 2: Biosynthesis of betalains

Extraction process and uses of betalains: Betalain extraction can be carried out in either pre-cooled water, aqueous methanol, or methanol at a pH of 5, with 0.25% (w/v) ascorbic acid to improve stability because of their hydrophilic nature. The extracts are processed by precipitating the pectic substance and using ion-exchange chromatography to remove free sugars and organic acids [8].

Betalains have various health-promoting benefits, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and analgesic properties. The antioxidant capacity of betalains was evaluated using the ABTS (2,2'-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid)) assay. This assay determines the ability of antioxidants to scavenge the free radical cat ions ATBS. The E50 value, which determines the 50% of scavenging activity of the betalains, was found to be 666–860 ppm. Betalains also exhibit anti-inflammatory activity, which is assessed by their capacity to inhibit sodium dodecyl sulfate-induced vascular irritation of the duck embryo CAM. The anti-angiogenic properties were also evaluated by observing the formation and depletion of blood vessels in the CAMs of duck embryos following treatment. The betacyanins isolated from dragon fruit peel have also been shown to control obesity. Betacyanins also reduce insulin resistance, thereby improving hepatic steatosis in obese mice fed a high-fat diet. Antidiabetic properties are also found in betalains, as they can increase adiponectin serum levels and reduce FGF21 levels [7]. Betalains also exhibit antibacterial activity against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. The antibacterial activity of betalains is attributed to the presence of alkaloids in their structure [1]. The betalains possess the anti-inflammatory properties and reduces the inflammation in the stomach which ultimately reduces the formation of peptic ulcer in the stomach thus showing the anti-ulcer property [44].

Phenolic compounds

Pitaya fruits contain a wide range of flavonoids and phenolic compounds, which are found in both seeds and pulp and also in the peel (Table 3). The special characteristics of these phenolic compounds are their possible health benefits, which are primarily explained by their antioxidant properties [11]. Among the 57 selected studies, pitayas of the genus Hylocereus were the most characterized fruits in terms of the presence of phenolic compounds. The phenolic chemical profile of Hylocereus polyrhizus has been analyzed in other studies. In the peel of H. polyrhizus, up to 15 phenolic compounds have been identified, mainly in the flavonoid class [18]. Epicatechin, phlorizin, and kaempferol (flavonoids) were found in the fruit pulp. The marked presence of phenylpropanoids and flavonoids in Hylocereus polyrhizus pitaya has been reported in other studies. Caffeic acid, along with quercetin and its derivatives, was identified in most of the studies involving H. polyrhizus [17].

The species Hylocereus costaricensis has also been evaluated for the presence of phenolic compounds [13]. Flavonoids, such as myricetin, rutoside, quercetin, pyrocatechol, rutin, and hispidulin, were identified in the peel and pulp of the fruits. The compounds belong mainly to the classes of benzoic acid derivatives and hydroxycinnamic acids and their derivatives [19].

Table 3: Assay of phenolic compounds present in pitaya fruits.

Chemical nature: Pitayas may have different chemical and nutritional compositions depending on their origin [14]. Flavonoids such as quercetin, kaempferol, rutin, and catechin are present in both the pulp and peel of Stenocereus species, including S. pruinosus, S. stellatus, and S. thurberi. Although the peel of the fruits of Hylocereus polyrhizus and Hylocereus undatus is usually discarded during consumption, it has a huge potential in the form of bioactive phenolic compounds related to health benefits and food use. Researchers investigated the phenolic content of these peels by employing various extraction techniques, including enzymatic treatment and both acid and basic hydrolysis. Typically, phytochemical quantification focuses exclusively on free phenolic compounds, which are easily liberated from the plant matrix [14]. Beyond standard methanolic extraction, the researchers utilized acid and basic hydrolysis alongside an enzymatic cocktail—comprising cellulase, hemicellulase, and pectinase—to isolate matrix-bound phenolics. This approach revealed that bound compounds accounted for 50% of the total phytochemicals identified in the peels of the two studied species [15].

A total of 37 individual phenolic compounds were characterized, spanning the chemical groups of flavonoids and derivatives of both benzoic and hydroxycinnamic acids. Notably, the bound fraction was dominated by caffeic, ferulic, and p-coumaric acids, whereas the free fraction consisted mainly of chlorogenic acid, quercetin, and ferulic acid. In addition, the identified peel phenolics were positively correlated (r > 0.70) with the antioxidant activity (DPPH, ABTS+, and FRAP assays), this further underscores the importance of phenolic compounds as potent natural antioxidants.

Extraction Process: Another study similarly utilized various extraction techniques to liberate the free phenolics bound within the H. undatus peel matrix. Research indicates that bound phenolic compounds possess greater biological activity than free phenolics. The integration of ultrasound-assisted alkaline extraction proved highly effective in maximizing polyphenol yields. The study's highlight was the identification of daphnetin, which showed a 120-fold increase in abundance within the bound polyphenol extract compared to the free extract [15]. 

Therapeutic uses: This compound exhibits significant biological activity, demonstrating potent antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-arthritic properties. Furthermore, it inhibits pseudoallergic reactions and enhances cognitive function in murine models [13]. The phenolics compound serves as the natural anti-oxidant supporting the L-DOPA lacks which help in treating Parkinson’s diseases [12]. The researchers further noted a significant prevalence of medicarpin—a compound structurally related to isoflavonoids—particularly within the bound polyphenol fraction [16]. This constituent is notably linked to the prevention of postmenopausal arthritis, inhibits osteoclast genesis, and has neuroprotective effects against Alzheimer’s disease [25]. Flavonoids frequently identified in pitaya, including isorhamnetin, quercetin, and kaempferol, serve as the primary active constituents in traditional Chinese medicinal formulations used to treat COVID-19 [20]. Flavonoids (such as quercetin and gallic acid) present in the peel of dragon fruit contains anti-allergic properties helping in treating the allergic reaction in respiratory tract and lungs also. The peel also contains various anti-oxidant properties and reduces the free radical in the body which ultimately reduces the oxidative stress which is a key factor in causing the COPD and other lung damage. Hence promoting the lung treatment [43].

The most commonly identified phenolic compounds in dragon fruits are described in Figure 3. The literature indicates that phenylpropanoids are the most frequently reported compounds, followed by those within the flavonoid class.

Figure 3. The main phenolic compounds identified in the studies.

The findings suggest that, broadly speaking, cactus fruits serve as excellent sources of phenolic phytochemicals. Kaempferol and rutin are some of the main flavonoids in pitaya, and they have been shown to have various health-promoting effects. Kaempferol demonstrates a multifaceted pharmacological profile, encompassing antihypertensive, cardioprotective, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory activities [21]. It has also been found to prevent microvascular diseases caused by elevated blood sugar levels and has the potential to alleviate liver damage caused by alcohol [22]. Many studies have also reported Rutin. It has been found that this compound inhibited ventilator-induced lung injury and possibly prevents kidney injury by alleviating oxidative stress and maintaining lipid metabolism [23,24].

Pitaya has health benefits that are facilitated by its phenolic acid profile. Gallic acid [41] has the potential to be naturally an inhibitor of alpha-amylase, which makes it an effective contender that may be utilized to create functional food and nutraceuticals that are diabetic-friendly. They show neuroprotective effects and therapeutic effects in the management of obesity [25,26]. Ferulic acid has various health effects. It is able to enhance glycemic metabolism, gut protective effect through the regulation of gut microbiota and antioxidant, hepatoprotective, and antihyperglycemic effects [27,28]. Another important phenolic acid in pitaya is the chlorogenic acid, which also has antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects and enhances lipid metabolism [29]. The possible uses in the treatment of multiple diseases can distinguish caffeic acid. It is effective in managing cancer, diabetes, and Parkinson’s disease. Another phenolic acid found in pitaya is protocatechuic acid, which has been shown to have anti-diabetic effects and possible chemopreventive abilities [30].

Dietary fibres

Dietary fibres are the nutrients that are indigestible carbohydrates obtained from plant-based food, these do not break down into glycon entities like other carbohydrates thus helping in better digestion and regulating blood glucose level eventually preventing from diabetes based on water solubility, these are generally classified as soluble and insoluble fibres among which the fibres which are present in pitaya are pectin and oligosaccharides and are soluble fibres [34]. They are no longer fibres, but they form a complex in the dietary fibre due to their similar effects [31]. Soluble dietary fibres help reduce cholesterol levels, thereby treating conditions such as hyperlipidemia, and also have anti-inflammatory and anticarcinogenic effects.  Dietary fibres are picked out by analysis of composition and physiological activity. These are the components that are resistant to enzymatic digestion [32]. 

Chemistry: Carbon is the main constituent of the cell walls of plants and of value to gut bacteria. Structurally, they are complex and contain homopolygalacturonan (PG), rhamnogalacturonan I (RGI) and rham nogalacturonan II [35]. Traditionally, pectin is used to make jellies, jams, etc [36].  The oligosaccharides are prebiotic, thus triggering the proliferation of the bifidobacteria and lactobacilli. In the proximal colon, these carbohydrates are fermented by microorganisms, yielding short-chain fatty acids, such as acetate, butyrate, and propionate. Acetate is used in the muscles, butyrate is used for colon cell division and has anti-colon cancer properties, and propionate is transported to the liver for ATP synthesis [33]. 

Notably, in food fibre profiles, pectin and other soluble polysaccharides are significant substances since digestive enzymes do not digest them but affect the absorption of nutrients in the human small intestine, and are fermented in the large intestine by bacterial enzymes, which are useful in maintaining the colonic microflora [37].

Extraction Process: The yield ranges from 10 to 26 g/100 g dm, which is comparable to those of other pectin sources such as apple pomace (~25 g/100 g dm), carrots (7–19 g/100 g dm), citrus peels (~12 g/100 g dm), orange pulp (12–28 g/100 g dm), sugar beet pulp (10–30 g/100 g dm), soy hull (~25 g/100 g dm) and sunflower (10–20 g/100 g dm)[38]. Pectin separated using dragon fruit peels contains a wide range of degrees of esterification, dependent on materials and processing factors, with a DE value that can be both large (≥90 per cent) and low (<10 per cent). The pH of the extraction medium has a strong effect on DE, whereas the effects of extraction time and solvent-to-pectin volume ratio on pectin precipitation are moderate. Table 4 reports the pectin yields obtained from the dragon fruit peels, including their degrees of esterification (DE) and the conditions of extraction. Particularly, it was found that a significant increase in pH between 2 and 3.5 led to a significant increase in DE [39]. It also had similar oil and water holding capacities to citrus pectin. Therefore, although its viscosity (0.088–0.1 Pa.s) at 3%w/v was lower than that of commercial apple (0.38–0.55 Pa.s) and citrus pectin (0.28–0.35 Pa.s), it displays potential as a functional and healthy ingredient in moderately viscous foods and beverages [40]. Alternatively, the low methoxy pectin extracted from dragon fruit peels with an esterification degree of 36% was demonstrated for their ability to be grafted with acrylic for hydrogel formation [42]. The hydrogel had a high swelling capacity of 3475% and was pH-sensitive, which could possibly be applied as a drug carrier for the specific target of the colon area.

Table 4: Yields and characteristics of pectin of dragon fruit peel.

Other than pectin, oligosaccharides are also of great interest. Although pectin has prebiotic properties, its effects are moderate, and pectin is generally hydrolyzed by acids, enzymes or hydrothermal processes to obtain pectin-oligosaccharides for enhanced biological activities [42]. Galacto-oligosaccharides (e.g. raffinose and stachyose), malto-oligosaccharides (e.g. maltotriose to maltoheptaose) and fructo-oligosaccharides are also other widely studied prebiotic oligosaccharides. These kinds of oligosaccharides were detected in dragon fruit peels of H. polyrhizus and H. undatus species (Table 5). Dragon fruit peels seem to contain higher amounts of malto-oligosaccharides than those of galacto-oligosaccharides and fructo-oligosaccharides. Notably, dragon fruit peels contain significant concentrations of both raffinose and stachyose—oligosaccharides that are absent in many other fruits and vegetables.

Therapeutic uses: The presence of these galacto-oligosaccharides is also reflected by the significant amount of galactose moiety detected in the dietary fibre profile of dragon fruit peels. They have been demonstrated as important prebiotics because they can stimulate the growth of bifidobacteria, a crucial probiotic and also one of the major genera of bacteria that constitute the gastrointestinal tract flora in humans. Beyond its phenolic profile, the pectin-rich matrix of H. undatus peels offers promising anti-cancer potential. By targeting Galectin-3-mediated pathways, pectin acts as a natural inhibitor of metastasis, complementing the pro-apoptotic effects of daphnetin [35]. The oligosaccharides of the Raffinose family, especially, may also serve as reserve carbohydrates, membrane stabilizers and stress-tolerant mediators, which may help in disease prevention in humans. Alternatively, the galacto-oligosaccharides of stachyose could improve the composition of faecal microbes, which facilitates the intestinal peristalsis and faecal excretion.

Table 5: Oligosaccharide composition of dragon fruit peels (μg/100 g dm)

CONCLUSION
Rather than being dismissed as mere agricultural waste, dragon fruit peel is actually a hidden gem with incredible potential. Making up nearly a third of the fruit’s total weight, these peels are packed with powerful natural compounds like betalains, phenols, and dietary fibres that offer far more than just nutritional value. Research shows that these elements can play a major role in fighting inflammation and managing serious health Broadening our perspective to see the peel as a resource rather than trash could be a game-changer; it offers a natural, eco-friendly alternative for the food and medicine industries while helping to reduce the ecological effect left by food waste. Ultimately, what we once threw away is proving to be a potent, health-boosting gift from nature.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

None.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Authors would like to express their sincere thanks to the Director of Pharmacy, Prof. (Dr.) Babita Kumar and Management of Sanskar Educational group for their kind support.

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